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Updated: Feb 21, 2026

Microinjection for Transgenesis and Genome Editing in Threespine Sticklebacks

Microinjection for Transgenesis and Genome Editing in Threespine Sticklebacks

Published on: May 13, 2016

Salinity-induced phenotypic plasticity in threespine stickleback sperm activation.

Annette Taugbøl^1,2, Anna B Mazzarella³, Emily R A Cramer⁴

¹Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Bioscience, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway annettetaugbol@gmail.com.

Biology Letters

|October 13, 2017

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Sperm activation in threespine stickleback exhibits phenotypic plasticity. Freshwater stickleback sperm can be activated in saltwater after environmental exposure, demonstrating an environmentally induced trait.

Keywords:

Gasterosteus aculeatus adaptive evolution plasticity salinity sperm activation

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Area of Science:

Environmental Science
Evolutionary Biology
Reproductive Biology

Background:

Phenotypic expression is influenced by an organism's developmental environment, a concept known as phenotypic plasticity.
Teleost sperm are typically inactive in seminal plasma and require osmotic shock for activation, with different mechanisms for marine and freshwater species.
The hypothesis posits a reversed regulatory system for sperm mobility in salt- and freshwater fish.

Purpose of the Study:

To test the hypothesis that sperm activation mechanisms in threespine stickleback are reversed between salt- and freshwater populations.
To investigate the phenotypic plasticity of sperm activation in threespine stickleback in response to environmental salinity changes.

Main Methods:

Sperm from saltwater and freshwater stickleback populations were activated in both salinities.
Freshwater stickleback were exposed to saltwater to assess changes in sperm activation.
Sperm motility was assessed in different salinity conditions.

Main Results:

Saltwater stickleback sperm activated in both salinities, consistent with their freshwater colonization history.
Freshwater stickleback sperm activated only in freshwater, aligning with osmotic shock theory.
Freshwater stickleback exposed to saltwater showed sperm activation in both freshwater and saltwater.

Conclusions:

Sperm activation in threespine stickleback is not rigidly determined by population origin but is a plastic trait.
Environmental exposure to saltwater can induce phenotypic plasticity in sperm activation in freshwater stickleback.
This environmentally induced plasticity allows stickleback sperm to be activated across a range of water qualities.