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Gap Junctions01:37

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Multicellular organisms employ a variety of ways for cells to communicate with each other. Gap junctions are specialized proteins that form pores between neighboring cells in animals, connecting the cytoplasm between the two, and allowing for the exchange of molecules and ions. They are found in a wide range of invertebrate and vertebrate species, mediate numerous functions including cell differentiation and development, and are associated with numerous human diseases, including cardiac and...
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The cytoplasm of adjacent animal cells can exchange small molecules, ions, and secondary messengers via the communication channels which form the gap junctions. These junctions comprise a few hundred to thousands of molecular channels, each made of two halves, called the connexon hemichannel. A connexon is a hexamer of six transmembrane connexin proteins, which assemble radially, thus forming a pore or channel in the center. One connexon hemichannel docks with a corresponding connexon on the...
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A schema is a mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts (Bartlett, 1932). There are many different types of schemata, and they all have one thing in common: schemata are a method of organizing information that allows the brain to work more efficiently. When a schema is activated, the brain makes immediate assumptions about the person or object being observed.
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According to Charles Cooley, we base our image on what we think other people see (Cooley 1902). We imagine how we must appear to others, then react to this speculation. We don certain clothes, prepare our hair in a particular manner, wear makeup, use cologne, and the like—all with the notion that our presentation of ourselves is going to affect how others perceive us. We expect a certain reaction, and, if lucky, we get the one we desire and feel good about it. But more than that, Cooley...
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Social proof is a form of persuasion based on comparison and conformity. People compare their behavior and actions to what others are doing and will change to conform to do what their peers do.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 27, 2026

Updated Protocol for the Assembly and Use of the Minibioreactor Array (MBRA)
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Update on Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae-knowledge, gaps and challenges.

E L Sassu1, J T Bossé2, T J Tobias3

  • 1Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.

Transboundary and Emerging Diseases
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Summary

Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae causes swine pleuropneumonia, leading to significant economic losses. This review addresses knowledge gaps in its pathogenesis, epidemiology, and control, highlighting future challenges for disease management.

Keywords:
Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniaebacterial pathogensdiagnosticsdisease controlimmunitypathogenesistransmission

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Area of Science:

  • Veterinary Microbiology
  • Animal Pathology
  • Swine Disease Research

Background:

  • Porcine pleuropneumonia, caused by Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, results in substantial economic losses globally.
  • The disease presents with severe respiratory distress and high mortality rates in affected pigs.
  • Despite extensive research since 1957, understanding of the pathogen and host interactions is incomplete.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review current knowledge on Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, covering pathogenesis, epidemiology, transmission, and host immune response.
  • To identify critical knowledge gaps and challenges in the prevention, detection, and control of porcine pleuropneumonia.
  • To consolidate expertise from science, industry, and clinical practice to address disease management.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of published results on porcine pleuropneumonia.
  • Inclusion of expert opinions and empirical observations from a DISCONTOOLS initiative.
  • Synthesis of information on pathogenesis, epidemiology, transmission, immune response, and control strategies.

Main Results:

  • Significant progress has been made in understanding Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae and host-pathogen interactions.
  • Commercial pig colonization complicates experimental findings and disease control.
  • Disease development involves multiple factors often studied in isolation, hindering comprehensive understanding.

Conclusions:

  • Key knowledge gaps persist in understanding the multifactorial nature of porcine pleuropneumonia.
  • Effective control requires addressing challenges in prevention, detection, and transmission.
  • Future research and collaborative efforts are crucial for mitigating economic impacts and improving swine health.