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meta-Directing Deactivators: –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –⁠CO2R, –COR, –CO2H01:13

meta-Directing Deactivators: –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –⁠CO2R, –COR, –CO2H

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All meta-directing substituents are deactivating groups. These substituents withdraw electrons from the aromatic ring, making the ring less reactive toward electrophilic substitution. For example, the nitration of nitrobenzene is 100,000 times slower than that of benzene because of the deactivating effect of the nitro group. The first step in an electrophilic aromatic substitution is the addition of an electrophile to form a resonance-stabilized carbocation. The energy diagrams for...
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2° Amines to N-Nitrosamines: Reaction with NaNO201:20

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Secondary amines react with nitrous acid to form N-nitrosamines, as depicted in Figure 1. Nitrous acid, a weak and unstable acid, is formed in situ from an aqueous solution of sodium nitrite and strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, in cold conditions. In the presence of an acid, the nitrous acid gets protonated. The subsequent loss of water results in the formation of the electrophile known as nitrosonium ion.
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SN2 Reaction: Kinetics02:14

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Kinetic Studies and Significance
In a chemical reaction, a relationship exists between the concentration of reactants and the rate at which the reaction proceeds. The study to measure this relationship is known as the kinetics of a chemical reaction. Kinetic studies are used to deduce the rate law of a chemical reaction, which provides information about the species involved during the transition state of the rate-determining step. Thus, kinetic studies help to derive the mechanism of a...
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SN2 Reaction: Mechanism02:27

SN2 Reaction: Mechanism

17.6K
The kinetic studies of SN2 reactions suggest an essential feature of its mechanism: it is a single-step process without intermediates. Here, both the nucleophile and the substrate participate in the rate-determining step.
The presence of the more electronegative halogen in the substrate creates a polarized carbon-halide bond. The halide pulls the electron cloud generating an electrophilic center at the carbon atom. Thus, the carbon atom carries a partial positive charge while the halide has a...
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SN2 Reaction: Transition State02:26

SN2 Reaction: Transition State

12.1K
An SN2 reaction of an alkyl halide is a single-step process in which bond formation between the nucleophile and the substrate and bond breaking between the substrate and the halide occurs simultaneously through a transition state without forming an intermediate.
When the nucleophile approaches the electrophilic carbon with its lone pairs, the halide acts as a leaving group and moves away with the electron-pair bonded to the carbon. Dotted partial bonds represent the bonds being formed or broken...
12.1K
SN2 Reaction: Stereochemistry02:23

SN2 Reaction: Stereochemistry

11.9K
In an SN2 reaction, the nucleophilic attack on the substrate and departure of the leaving group occurs simultaneously through a transition state. As the nucleophile approaches the substrate from the back-side, the configuration of the substrate carbon changes from tetrahedral to trigonal bipyramidal and then back to tetrahedral, leading to an inversion in the configuration of the product.
If the substrate is an achiral molecule at the α-carbon, the inversion of configuration is not...
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Preparing for future incapacity: part 2.

Richard Griffith

    British Journal of Nursing (Mark Allen Publishing)
    |January 12, 2018
    PubMed
    Summary
    This summary is machine-generated.

    Preparing for future incapacity is crucial. The Mental Capacity Act 2005 provides formal powers to uphold autonomy and respect individual wishes and feelings.

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    Area of Science:

    • Law and Ethics
    • Healthcare Policy

    Background:

    • Advance care planning is essential for individuals facing potential future incapacity.
    • Ensuring personal autonomy and respecting individual wishes are key ethical considerations in healthcare.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To discuss the formal powers within the Mental Capacity Act 2005.
    • To highlight how these legal provisions promote individual autonomy.
    • To explain how the Act gives effect to a person's wishes and feelings.

    Main Methods:

    • This article is a discussion based on the legal framework of the Mental Capacity Act 2005.
    • It reviews the statutory powers relevant to decision-making for those lacking capacity.

    Main Results:

    • The Mental Capacity Act 2005 grants specific legal powers to support and enforce a person's autonomy.
    • These powers ensure that an individual's previously expressed wishes and feelings are formally considered and acted upon.

    Conclusions:

    • The Mental Capacity Act 2005 offers robust legal mechanisms to protect and promote autonomy for individuals preparing for future incapacity.
    • Effective utilization of these powers is vital for upholding person-centered care and respecting individual self-determination.