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Polytene Chromosomes02:04

Polytene Chromosomes

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Polytene chromosomes are giant interphase chromosomes with several DNA strands placed side by side. They were discovered in the year 1881 by Balbiani in salivary glands, intestine, muscles, malpighian tubules, and hypoderm of larvae Chironomus plumosus. Hence, these are also called "Salivary gland chromosomes." These are found in insects of the order Diptera and Collembola; in certain organs of mammals; and synergids, antipodes of flowering plants. Polytene chromosomes are also...
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Chromosome Structure02:40

Chromosome Structure

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A functional eukaryotic chromosome must contain three elements: a centromere, telomeres, and numerous origins of replication.
The centromere is a DNA sequence that links sister chromatids. This is also where kinetochores, protein complexes to which spindle microtubules attach, are constructed after the chromosome is replicated. The kinetochores allow the spindle microtubules to move the chromosomes within the cell during cell division.
Telomeres consist of non-coding repetitive nucleotide...
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Lampbrush Chromosomes01:51

Lampbrush Chromosomes

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In 1882, Flemming observed lampbrush chromosomes (LBC) in salamander eggs. Later in 1892, Rückert observed LBCs in shark egg cells and coined the term "lampbrush chromosomes" because they looked like brushes used to clean kerosene lamps.
LBCs are made up of two pairs of conjugating homologous chromatids. Each chromatid consists of alternatively positioned regions of condensed-inactive chromatin and loosely placed-active side loops, which can be contracted and extended. The loops...
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Chromosome Replication02:31

Chromosome Replication

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Before a cell can divide, it must accurately replicate all of its chromosomes, including the DNA and its associated histone and non-histone proteins.  This process begins at numerous origins of replication during the S phase of the cell cycle in each of a cell’s chromosomes simultaneously. Certain nucleotides can act as origins of replication, but these sequences are not well defined - especially in complex, multi-cellular, eukaryotic species. The length of DNA that spans an origin...
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The Mitotic Spindle02:27

The Mitotic Spindle

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The mitotic spindle—or spindle apparatus—is a eukaryotic, cytoskeletal structure made up of long protein fibers called microtubules. Formed during cell division, the spindle separates sister chromatids and moves them to opposite ends of a parental cell, where the now individual chromosomes are distributed to two daughter cell nuclei.
The bipolar configuration of the mitotic spindle facilitates chromosomal segregation, preparing the cell for division. One mechanism that ensures...
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Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance01:39

Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

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In 1866, Gregor Mendel published the results of his pea plant breeding experiments, providing evidence for predictable patterns in the inheritance of physical characteristics. The significance of his findings was not immediately recognized. In fact, the existence of genes was unknown at the time. Mendel referred to hereditary units as “factors.”
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 15, 2026

Fluorescent in situ Hybridization on Mitotic Chromosomes of Mosquitoes
09:00

Fluorescent in situ Hybridization on Mitotic Chromosomes of Mosquitoes

Published on: September 17, 2012

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A pathway for mitotic chromosome formation.

Johan H Gibcus1, Kumiko Samejima2, Anton Goloborodko3

  • 1Program in Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.

Science (New York, N.Y.)
|January 20, 2018
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Mitotic chromosome formation involves rapid loss of interphase organization and the creation of nested, helical chromatin loops. Condensin proteins play a key role in this process, with condensin II essential for helical winding.

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Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Feb 15, 2026

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Live Cell Imaging of Chromosome Segregation During Mitosis
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Live Cell Imaging of Chromosome Segregation During Mitosis

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Area of Science:

  • Cell Biology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Mitotic chromosomes are highly compact structures essential for accurate cell division.
  • The precise mechanisms by which interphase chromatin is remodeled into mitotic chromosomes remain incompletely understood.
  • Chromatin loops and the role of condensin complexes are critical in chromosome condensation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To elucidate the step-by-step pathway of mitotic chromosome formation.
  • To investigate the role of condensin complexes in organizing chromatin loops during mitosis.
  • To understand the hierarchical folding of chromatin into compact mitotic structures.

Main Methods:

  • Live-cell imaging of synchronous DT40 cell cultures.
  • High-throughput chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) analysis.
  • Polymer simulations to model chromatin organization.

Main Results:

  • Interphase organization is rapidly lost in prophase via a condensin-dependent process, forming 60-kilobase (kb) loops.
  • During prometaphase, nested loop structures emerge: ~80-kb inner loops within ~400-kb outer loops.
  • Chromatin adopts a helical arrangement around a central condensin scaffold, with helical turns expanding up to ~12 megabases.
  • Differential roles of condensin I and II were identified, with condensin II crucial for helical winding.

Conclusions:

  • Mitotic chromosome formation involves a hierarchical loop-nesting and helical winding process.
  • Condensin complexes, particularly condensin II, are essential regulators of chromatin organization during mitosis.
  • The study reveals a detailed pathway for mitotic chromosome folding, from initial loop formation to large-scale helical structures.