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Why Do Knuckle-Walking African Apes Knuckle-Walk?

Scott W Simpson1,2, Bruce Latimer3,2, C Owen Lovejoy4,2

  • 1Department of Anatomy, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio.

Anatomical Record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007)
|February 9, 2018
PubMed
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Knuckle-walking in African apes evolved independently, not from common ancestry. This locomotion pattern likely developed to reduce forelimb impact stress during terrestrial movement.

Keywords:
African apeseccentric contractionknuckle-walkingnegative work

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Area of Science:

  • Primate locomotion
  • Comparative anatomy
  • Paleoanthropology

Background:

  • Knuckle-walking is observed in African apes (Pan and Gorilla) and some anteaters.
  • Previous theories suggested knuckle-walking indicated common ancestry for Homo, Pan, and Gorilla.
  • Recent fossil and developmental evidence challenges this, suggesting independent evolution.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To propose a functional explanation for knuckle-walking in African apes.
  • To investigate the role of forelimb musculature and impact loading.
  • To re-evaluate anatomical features previously attributed to knuckle-walking adaptations.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of forelimb ontogeny and anatomy in apes.
  • Comparative study of knuckle-walking and non-knuckle-walking ape anatomy (including humans).
  • Examination of fossil hominin evidence.

Main Results:

  • Knuckle-walking appears to have evolved independently in Pan and Gorilla lineages after their divergence.
  • The pattern likely serves to mitigate repetitive impact forces on forelimb tissues through specific muscle contractions.
  • Observed anatomical differences in forearm muscles and torso shape support this functional hypothesis.
  • Skeletal features in the wrist and hand may be due to developmental cartilage remodeling rather than direct adaptations for knuckle-walking.

Conclusions:

  • Knuckle-walking is an independently acquired adaptation in African apes, not a shared primitive trait.
  • The primary function is likely the amelioration of impact stress during terrestrial locomotion.
  • This functional explanation clarifies locomotor similarities between modern Pan and Gorilla.