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Related Concept Videos

Endoscopic Procedures III: Video Capsule Endoscopy01:28

Endoscopic Procedures III: Video Capsule Endoscopy

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Capsule endoscopy, or wireless or video capsule endoscopy, is a diagnostic procedure for examining the entire gastrointestinal tract. Patients swallow a capsule about the size of a vitamin tablet. The capsule is equipped with a transmitter, a battery, an LED light source, and a color video camera to capture images throughout the gastrointestinal tract. This procedure is particularly useful for diagnosing conditions such as Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, tumors, polyps, ulcers,...
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Formulation and Manufacturing Process: Physical Attributes of Generic Tablets and Capsules01:18

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Bioequivalence in generic drugs, such as tablets and capsules, refers to their pharmaceutical equivalence to the brand-name counterparts. However, for therapeutic equivalence, manufacturers must also consider physical attributes like size, shape, and weight (FDA Guidance for Industry, December 2003). Discrepancies in these aspects could impact patient compliance and cause medication errors. For instance, swallowing difficulties, often experienced with larger tablets or capsules, can lead to...
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Filtration and Urine Formation

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The function of the kidneys is to filter, reabsorb, secrete, and excrete. Every day the kidneys filter nearly 180 liters of blood, initially removing water and solutes but ultimately returning nearly all filtrates into circulation with the help of osmoregulatory hormones. This process removes wastes and toxins but is also crucial to maintain water and electrolyte levels. Most of these functions are performed by the tiny but numerous nephrons contained within the kidneys.
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Kidney Structure01:45

Kidney Structure

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The kidneys are two large bean-shaped organs located in the upper abdomen. They filter the blood several times a day to remove toxins and rebalance water and electrolytes of the circulatory system via the renal veins. The kidneys receive blood directly from the heart via the renal arteries. These arteries enter the kidney at the hilum, the concave surface of the bean, where they branch and divide into smaller vessels and capillaries.
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Hormonal Regulation01:33

Hormonal Regulation

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The renin-aldosterone system is an endocrine system which guides the renal absorption of water and electrolytes, thus managing blood pressure and osmoregulation. Activation of the system begins in the kidneys with a small cluster of cells adjacent to the afferent and efferent blood vessels of the renal corpuscle. As the nephrons are filtering blood, juxtaglomerular cells monitor blood pressure. If they detect a decrease in pressure, they release the hormone renin into the bloodstream.
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Blind Procedures02:07

Blind Procedures

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Ideally, the people who observe and record the children’s behavior are unaware of who was assigned to the experimental or control group, in order to control for experimenter bias. Experimenter bias refers to the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study. Remember, conducting an experiment requires a lot of planning, and the people involved in the research project have a vested interest in supporting their hypotheses. If the observers knew which...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 14, 2026

Size Matters: Measurement of Capsule Diameter in Cryptococcus neoformans
08:24

Size Matters: Measurement of Capsule Diameter in Cryptococcus neoformans

Published on: February 27, 2018

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The capsule of Cryptococcus neoformans.

Arturo Casadevall1, Carolina Coelho1, Radames J B Cordero1

  • 1Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health , Baltimore , MD , USA.

Virulence
|February 14, 2018
PubMed
Summary

The Cryptococcus neoformans capsule is a key virulence factor. Studying its dynamic structure requires integrating microscopy, chemistry, and biophysics to understand its role in fungal survival and host immune evasion.

Keywords:
cryptococcal capsulepolysaccharide structurevirulence factor

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Visualizing Non-lytic Exocytosis of Cryptococcus neoformans from Macrophages Using Digital Light Microscopy
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Area of Science:

  • Mycology
  • Immunology
  • Biochemistry

Background:

  • The capsule of Cryptococcus neoformans is a critical virulence factor.
  • Understanding the capsule's structure is essential for comprehending fungal biology and pathogenesis.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore the structure of the Cryptococcus neoformans capsule.
  • To highlight the limitations of current study methodologies and propose an integrated approach.

Main Methods:

  • Microscopy
  • Polysaccharide chemistry
  • Physical chemistry of macromolecules

Main Results:

  • The capsule is a dynamic structure that responds to environmental stimuli and cell replication.
  • It protects the fungus from desiccation and phagocytic predators in the environment.
  • In hosts, it interferes with immune responses and shields the fungus from microbicidal attacks.

Conclusions:

  • A comprehensive understanding of the cryptococcal capsule necessitates synthesizing data from diverse methodologies.
  • The capsule's dynamic nature is crucial for fungal survival and virulence.
  • Further research is needed to address unsolved problems in cryptococcal capsule biology.