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Types of Genetic Transfer Between Organisms

Types of Genetic Transfer Between Organisms

Genetic transfer occurs when genetic information is passed from one organism to another. It occurs via two mechanisms: vertical gene transfer and horizontal gene transfer. Vertical gene transfer occurs when genetic information is transferred from one generation to the next, which happens much more frequently than horizontal gene transfer. Both sexual and asexual reproduction are forms of vertical gene transfer, where one or more organisms pass some or all of their genome onto their progeny.

Types of Genetic Transfer Between Organisms

Types of Genetic Transfer Between Organisms

Resistivity

Resistivity

When a voltage is applied to a conductor, an electrical field is generated, and charges in the conductor feel the force due to the electrical field. The current density that results depends on the electrical field and the properties of the material. In some materials, including metals at a given temperature, the current density is approximately proportional to the electrical field. In these cases, the current density can be modeled as:

Resistance

Resistance

When a current moves through any conductor, the conductor causes some level of difficulty for the current to flow. The measure of that difficulty is known as the resistance of the material and is represented by R. Every material has its own resistance. In the case of conductors, heat is emitted whenever a current passes through them. Resistance depends on the resistivity of the material. Resistivity is a characteristic of the material used to fabricate electrical components, whereas the...

Equivalent Resistance

Equivalent Resistance

In circuit analysis, situations often arise where resistors are neither in series nor parallel configurations. To tackle such scenarios, three-terminal equivalent networks like the wye (Y) (Figure 1 (a)) or tee (T) and delta (Δ) (Figure 1 (b)) or pi (π) networks come into play. These networks offer versatile solutions and are frequently encountered in various applications, including three-phase electrical systems, electrical filters, and matching networks.

Resistance and Conductance

Resistance and Conductance

A conductor's DC resistance at a given temperature is influenced by its resistivity, length, and cross-sectional area. Resistivity is an inherent property of the conductor material, with annealed copper serving as the international standard for measurement. For instance, the resistivity of hard-drawn aluminum at 20 degrees Celsius is 61% of the standard conductivity of annealed copper.
Various factors impact the resistance of a conductor. Spiraling in stranded conductors increases their...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 14, 2026

A 1.5 Hour Procedure for Identification of Enterococcus Species Directly from Blood Cultures

A 1.5 Hour Procedure for Identification of Enterococcus Species Directly from Blood Cultures

Published on: February 10, 2011

Transferable vancomycin resistance in clade B commensal-type Enterococcus faecium.

François Lebreton^1,2, Michael D Valentino^1,2, Katharina Schaufler^1,2

¹Departments of Ophthalmology, Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.

The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy

|February 21, 2018

Summary

Vancomycin resistance (VanN) was found in a rare E. faecium strain (clade B). This finding in a hospitalized patient highlights potential undetected resistance reservoirs and public health concerns.

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Last Updated: Feb 14, 2026

A 1.5 Hour Procedure for Identification of Enterococcus Species Directly from Blood Cultures

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Published on: February 10, 2011

Multiplex PCR Assay for Typing of Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome Mec Types I to V in Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

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Conjunctival Commensal Isolation and Identification in Mice

Conjunctival Commensal Isolation and Identification in Mice

Published on: May 1, 2021

Area of Science:

Microbiology
Genomics
Infectious Diseases

Background:

Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VRE) is a major cause of hospital-acquired infections.
E. faecium exists in two main populations: hospital-adapted (clade A) and commensal (clade B).
VanN-type vancomycin resistance is typically associated with hospital-adapted strains.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the genomic context and population structure of VanN-resistant E. faecium isolates from an immunocompromised patient.
To assess the potential for transmission and origins of VanN resistance in this unusual genetic background.
To understand the implications of VanN resistance in commensal E. faecium strains.

Main Methods:

Whole-genome sequencing of VanN-resistant E. faecium isolates.
Comparative genomics to analyze chromosomal and plasmid content.
Functional genomics to characterize the vanN operon and its regulatory elements.

Main Results:

VanN resistance was identified in E. faecium clustering with the commensal clade B, which is highly atypical.
A conjugative plasmid (pUV24) carrying the vanN operon was characterized.
The vanN operon showed signatures of in-host selection, leading to constitutive vancomycin resistance expression, potentially evading detection.

Conclusions:

Vancomycin resistance in a commensal E. faecium lineage caused atypical bacteremia in an immunocompromised patient.
The presence of transferable glycopeptide resistance in community commensal strains is a public health concern.
Current detection methods may miss VanN resistance in clade B strains.