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Bond Energies and Bond Lengths02:49

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

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Stable molecules exist because covalent bonds hold the atoms together. The strength of a covalent bond is measured by the energy required to break it, that is, the energy necessary to separate the bonded atoms. Separating any pair of bonded atoms requires energy — the stronger a bond, the greater the energy required to break it.
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A peptide bond covalently attaches amino acids through a dehydration reaction. One amino acid's carboxyl group and another amino acid's amino group combine, releasing a water molecule. The resulting bond is the peptide bond. The products that such linkages form are peptides. As more amino acids join this growing chain, the resulting chain is a polypeptide. Each polypeptide has a free amino group at one end. This end has the N-terminal, or the amino-terminal, and the other end has a free...
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Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Drüde called the “Electron Sea Model”. 
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When atoms gain or lose electrons to achieve a more stable electron configuration they form ions. Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between ions with opposite charges. Ionic compounds are rigid and brittle when solid and may dissociate into their constituent ions in water. Covalent compounds, by contrast, remain intact unless a chemical reaction breaks them.
Opposing Charges Hold Ions Together in Ionic Compounds
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The presence of electron-donating, electron-withdrawing, or conjugating groups adjacent to a radical center, imparts electronic stabilization to the radicals. Examples of such electronically-stabilized radicals are triphenylmethyl, tetramethylpiperidine‐N‐oxide, and 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl. These radicals are remarkably stable and are known as persistent radicals. Some of the persistent radicals can even be isolated and purified.
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Overview of Valence Bond Theory
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In Vitro Model of Human Cutaneous Hypertrophic Scarring using Macromolecular Crowding
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Steric Crowding in Tetrel Bonds.

Steve Scheiner1

  • 1Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Utah State University , Logan , Utah 84322-0300 , United States.

The Journal of Physical Chemistry. A
|February 22, 2018
PubMed
Summary

Steric crowding impacts tetrel bonds, but larger atoms, electron-withdrawing groups, and anionic bases strengthen these noncovalent interactions. Tetrel bond energies can reach up to 54 kcal/mol.

Area of Science:

  • Inorganic Chemistry
  • Computational Chemistry
  • Materials Science

Background:

  • Tetrel atoms (Si, Ge, Sn, Pb) exhibit tetravalent character, limiting nucleophilic approach for noncovalent bonding.
  • Geometric distortions are necessary for nucleophiles to form tetrel bonds with tetrel atoms.
  • Understanding the interplay between attractive forces and steric repulsion is crucial for characterizing tetrel bonds.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the influence of steric crowding on tetrel bond strength and properties.
  • To examine how varying R groups (H, CH3, isopropyl, tert-butyl) in FTR3 Lewis acids affect tetrel bonding.
  • To identify strategies for optimizing tetrel bond interactions.

Main Methods:

  • Computational studies of Lewis acids (FTR3, T = Si, Ge, Sn, Pb) interacting with various bases.

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  • Systematic variation of R groups to introduce steric hindrance.
  • Analysis of tetrel bond energies and geometric parameters.

    • Main Results:

    • Steric crowding from larger R groups impedes tetrel bond formation.
    • Enlarging the central tetrel atom (T) or adding electron-withdrawing substituents (e.g., -CF3) enhances bond strength.
    • Anionic bases significantly increase tetrel bond energies compared to neutral molecules.
    • Maximum tetrel bond energies observed: 10 kcal/mol (neutral, no substituents), 35 kcal/mol (-CF3 substituents), 54 kcal/mol (anionic base).

    Conclusions:

    • Tetrel bond strength is tunable by modifying the Lewis acid's steric and electronic properties.
    • Electron-withdrawing groups and larger tetrel atoms effectively counteract steric repulsion.
    • Anionic bases are potent partners for forming strong tetrel bonds, reaching significant interaction energies.