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Quantum Numbers

Quantum Numbers

It is said that the energy of an electron in an atom is quantized; that is, it can be equal only to certain specific values and can jump from one energy level to another but not transition smoothly or stay between these levels.

The Quantum-Mechanical Model of an Atom

The Quantum-Mechanical Model of an Atom

Shortly after de Broglie published his ideas that the electron in a hydrogen atom could be better thought of as being a circular standing wave instead of a particle moving in quantized circular orbits, Erwin Schrödinger extended de Broglie’s work by deriving what is now known as the Schrödinger equation. When Schrödinger applied his equation to hydrogen-like atoms, he was able to reproduce Bohr’s expression for the energy and, thus, the Rydberg formula governing hydrogen spectra.

Semiconductors

Semiconductors

There is variation in the electrical conductivity of materials - metals, semiconductors, and insulators that are showcased with the help of the energy band diagrams.
Metals such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), or lead (Pb) have low resistivity and feature conduction bands that are either not fully occupied or overlap with the valence band, making a bandgap non-existent. This allows electrons in the highest energy levels of the valence band to easily transition to the conduction band upon gaining...

Types of Semiconductors

Types of Semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductors are highly pure materials with no impurities. At absolute zero, these semiconductors behave as perfect insulators because all the valence electrons are bound, and the conduction band is empty, disallowing electrical conduction. The Fermi level is a concept used to describe the probability of occupancy of energy levels by electrons at thermal equilibrium. In intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level is positioned at the midpoint of the energy gap at absolute zero. When...

Metal-Semiconductor Junctions

Metal-Semiconductor Junctions

The contact of metal and semiconductor can lead to the formation of a junction with either Schottky or Ohmic behavior.
Schottky Barriers
Schottky barriers arise when a metal with a work function (Φm) contacts a semiconductor with a different work function (Φs). Initially, electrons transfer until the Fermi levels of the metal and semiconductor align at equilibrium. For instance, if Φm > Φs, the semiconductor Fermi level is higher than the metal's before contact. The...

The Dot Product

The Dot Product

Measuring how one directional quantity affects another along a specific path involves comparing their orientation and strength. When two such quantities are represented using direction and amount, a numerical result is computed to show how much one acts along the path of the other. This result comes from a rule combining both inputs' horizontal and vertical parts and adding the results.This calculation gives a single value that grows larger when both inputs point in similar directions and...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 14, 2026

Silicon Metal-oxide-semiconductor Quantum Dots for Single-electron Pumping

Silicon Metal-oxide-semiconductor Quantum Dots for Single-electron Pumping

Published on: June 3, 2015

Biocompatible Semiconductor Quantum Dots as Cancer Imaging Agents.

Kevin J McHugh¹, Lihong Jing^1,2, Adam M Behrens¹

¹David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.

Advanced Materials (Deerfield Beach, Fla.)

|February 23, 2018

Summary

Quantum dots (QDs) offer improved cancer imaging over current dyes due to their stability and targeting capabilities. This study compares QDs with existing fluorophores, providing a pathway for clinical translation in cancer diagnosis.

Keywords:

cancer imaging fluorescence near-infrared optical imaging quantum dots

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Last Updated: Feb 14, 2026

Silicon Metal-oxide-semiconductor Quantum Dots for Single-electron Pumping

Silicon Metal-oxide-semiconductor Quantum Dots for Single-electron Pumping

Published on: June 3, 2015

Compact Quantum Dots for Single-molecule Imaging

Compact Quantum Dots for Single-molecule Imaging

Published on: October 9, 2012

Production and Targeting of Monovalent Quantum Dots

Production and Targeting of Monovalent Quantum Dots

Published on: October 23, 2014

Area of Science:

Biomedical Engineering
Optical Imaging
Nanotechnology

Background:

Cancer diagnosis and staging are critical for patient survival, with early detection significantly improving remission rates.
Current imaging techniques and contrast agents for intraoperative assessment of tumor margins and lymph nodes have limitations in specificity, stability, and signal penetration.
Accurate tumor margin identification and staging are essential for effective cancer treatment and minimizing recurrence.

Purpose of the Study:

To compare biocompatible quantum dots (QDs) with Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved fluorophores for cancer imaging.
To evaluate the potential of QDs as advanced contrast agents for intraoperative imaging.
To provide a perspective on the clinical translation pathway for QD-based cancer imaging.

Main Methods:

Comparative analysis of state-of-the-art biocompatible quantum dots (QDs) and current FDA-approved fluorophores.
Assessment of optical properties, tissue specificity, stability, and signal penetration for both QD and conventional fluorophore contrast agents.
Review of existing literature and clinical translation considerations for QD-based imaging.

Main Results:

Quantum dots exhibit tunable optical properties, high stability, and potential for targeted delivery to tumors and lymph nodes.
Current fluorophores used in cancer imaging demonstrate limitations in tissue specificity, stability, and signal penetration compared to QDs.
QDs show promise for enhanced detection during real-time intraoperative imaging.

Conclusions:

Biocompatible quantum dots represent a promising advancement over current fluorophores for intraoperative cancer imaging.
QDs offer superior optical properties and targeting capabilities essential for accurate tumor margin assessment and staging.
Further research and development are needed to facilitate the clinical translation of QD-based imaging agents for improved cancer diagnosis and treatment.