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Updated: Feb 14, 2026

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The two processes underlying the testing effect- Evidence from Event-Related Potentials (ERPs).

Xiaonan L Liu1, Deborah H Tan2, Lynne M Reder3

  • 1Institute of Psychology, School of Public Policy, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China 361005; Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.

Neuropsychologia
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PubMed
Summary

The testing effect, where tests improve learning more than re-study, involves both retrieval attempts and re-encoding information. Event-related potentials (ERPs) show distinct neural patterns for these processes during testing.

Keywords:
Cued recallEvent-Related Potentials (ERP)Re-encodingRetrieval attemptTesting effect

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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Neuroscience
  • Educational Psychology
  • Memory Research

Background:

  • The testing effect enhances learning compared to re-study methods.
  • Existing theories focus on retrieval or re-encoding benefits.
  • Prior neuroimaging suggests both retrieval and re-encoding contribute to the testing effect.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To empirically investigate the neural processes underlying the testing effect.
  • To differentiate the roles of retrieval attempt and re-encoding in memory consolidation.
  • To examine how accuracy on initial and subsequent tests influences neural activity.

Main Methods:

  • Recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) during a cued-recall memory task.
  • Analyzed ERPs based on accuracy of the current recall attempt and subsequent memory performance.
  • Categorized participants into groups based on dual-test accuracy (correct/correct, correct/incorrect, incorrect/incorrect).

Main Results:

  • ERPs between 400-700 ms showed patterns related to current and subsequent accuracy, suggesting retrieval processes.
  • ERPs between 700-1000 ms predicted subsequent memory, particularly for non-overlearned information, indicating re-encoding.
  • These findings support a dual-component model of the testing effect.

Conclusions:

  • The testing effect arises from distinct neural processes: retrieval attempts and subsequent re-encoding.
  • Early ERP components (400-700 ms) reflect retrieval effort, modulated by accuracy.
  • Later ERP components (700-1000 ms) reflect learning-dependent re-encoding, crucial for memory consolidation.