Phalangeal joints kinematics in ostrich (Struthio camelus) locomotion on sand

In ostriches, the toes are the only body parts that contact loose sand surfaces. Thus, toe interphalangeal joint motions may play vital biomechanical roles. However, there is little research on ostrich phalangeal joint movements while walking or running on sand. The results from the three-dimensional motion track analysis system Simi Motion show that gait pattern has no significant effect on the key indicators (angles at touch-down, mid-stance, lift-off and range of motion) of the toe joint angles. The motion of the toe phalanges when walking and running on sand is basically the same. The ground medium is the key factor that changes the toe postures adopted by ostriches during the stance phase in slow to fast locomotion. The 3rd toe and the 4th toe are connected by the interphalangeal ligament, and the motions of the MTP3 and MTP4 joints are highly synchronized on a loose sand substrate. The 3rd toe and 4th toe are coupled to maintain static balance in slow locomotion and dynamic balance in fast locomotion. In addition, the gait pattern has a marked effect on the range of forward displacement of the toenail (YTN). The ostrich toenail plays an important role in preventing slip and provides traction at push-off in a sandy environment. The metatarsophalangeal joint plays an important role in energy saving during fast locomotion on loose sand substrates. Simulation reveals that the particle velocity field, particle force field and sand particle disturbance in the running gait are denser than those in the walking gait.