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Unlike mitosis, meiosis aims for genetic diversity in its creation of haploid gametes. Dividing germ cells first begin this process in prophase I, where each chromosome—replicated in S phase—is now composed of two sister chromatids (identical copies) joined centrally.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 13, 2026

Author Spotlight: Studying the Impact of Maternal Dietary Deficiencies on Long-Term Offspring Health Outcomes
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Maternal modulation of paternal effects on offspring development.

Rahia Mashoodh1,2, Ireneusz B Habrylo3, Kathryn M Gudsnuk3

  • 1Department of Psychology, Columbia University, 1190 Amsterdam Avenue, Room 406 Schermerhorn Hall, New York, NY 10027, USA rm786@cam.ac.uk.

Proceedings. Biological Sciences
|March 9, 2018
PubMed
Summary

Paternal diet impacts offspring epigenetics via sperm. However, maternal care can override these effects, demonstrating a crucial role for mothers in modulating inherited paternal influences on development.

Keywords:
behaviourembryo transfermaternal carepaternal germline transmission

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Area of Science:

  • Epigenetics and developmental biology
  • Reproductive biology
  • Behavioral neuroscience

Background:

  • Paternal environmental exposures can induce transgenerational epigenetic inheritance via sperm.
  • The role of maternal factors in modulating these paternally inherited effects is largely unexplored.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate how paternal nutritional restriction influences offspring phenotypes.
  • To determine the role of maternal investment in mediating paternal germline effects.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized embryo transfer in mice to isolate paternal effects.
  • Conducted natural mating experiments to assess maternal-offspring interactions.
  • Analyzed offspring growth, hypothalamic gene expression, and behavior.
  • Assessed maternal mate preference and hypothalamic gene expression.

Main Results:

  • Sperm factors from food-restricted males influenced female offspring growth, hypothalamic gene expression, and behavior in embryo transfer models.
  • Under natural mating, females mated with food-restricted males exhibited increased maternal care, reversing or masking the embryo transfer findings.
  • Compensatory maternal investment correlated with reduced mate preference for food-restricted males and altered maternal hypothalamic gene expression.

Conclusions:

  • Paternal experiences can be transmitted to offspring via germline inheritance.
  • Maternal investment acts as a significant modulating factor, influencing the developmental outcomes of paternally inherited epigenetic effects.