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Related Concept Videos

meta-Directing Deactivators: –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –⁠CO2R, –COR, –CO2H01:13

meta-Directing Deactivators: –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –⁠CO2R, –COR, –CO2H

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All meta-directing substituents are deactivating groups. These substituents withdraw electrons from the aromatic ring, making the ring less reactive toward electrophilic substitution. For example, the nitration of nitrobenzene is 100,000 times slower than that of benzene because of the deactivating effect of the nitro group. The first step in an electrophilic aromatic substitution is the addition of an electrophile to form a resonance-stabilized carbocation. The energy diagrams for...
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2° Amines to N-Nitrosamines: Reaction with NaNO201:20

2° Amines to N-Nitrosamines: Reaction with NaNO2

5.5K
Secondary amines react with nitrous acid to form N-nitrosamines, as depicted in Figure 1. Nitrous acid, a weak and unstable acid, is formed in situ from an aqueous solution of sodium nitrite and strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, in cold conditions. In the presence of an acid, the nitrous acid gets protonated. The subsequent loss of water results in the formation of the electrophile known as nitrosonium ion.
5.5K
SN2 Reaction: Kinetics02:14

SN2 Reaction: Kinetics

10.4K
Kinetic Studies and Significance
In a chemical reaction, a relationship exists between the concentration of reactants and the rate at which the reaction proceeds. The study to measure this relationship is known as the kinetics of a chemical reaction. Kinetic studies are used to deduce the rate law of a chemical reaction, which provides information about the species involved during the transition state of the rate-determining step. Thus, kinetic studies help to derive the mechanism of a...
10.4K
SN2 Reaction: Mechanism02:27

SN2 Reaction: Mechanism

17.5K
The kinetic studies of SN2 reactions suggest an essential feature of its mechanism: it is a single-step process without intermediates. Here, both the nucleophile and the substrate participate in the rate-determining step.
The presence of the more electronegative halogen in the substrate creates a polarized carbon-halide bond. The halide pulls the electron cloud generating an electrophilic center at the carbon atom. Thus, the carbon atom carries a partial positive charge while the halide has a...
17.5K
SN2 Reaction: Transition State02:26

SN2 Reaction: Transition State

12.0K
An SN2 reaction of an alkyl halide is a single-step process in which bond formation between the nucleophile and the substrate and bond breaking between the substrate and the halide occurs simultaneously through a transition state without forming an intermediate.
When the nucleophile approaches the electrophilic carbon with its lone pairs, the halide acts as a leaving group and moves away with the electron-pair bonded to the carbon. Dotted partial bonds represent the bonds being formed or broken...
12.0K
SN2 Reaction: Stereochemistry02:23

SN2 Reaction: Stereochemistry

11.8K
In an SN2 reaction, the nucleophilic attack on the substrate and departure of the leaving group occurs simultaneously through a transition state. As the nucleophile approaches the substrate from the back-side, the configuration of the substrate carbon changes from tetrahedral to trigonal bipyramidal and then back to tetrahedral, leading to an inversion in the configuration of the product.
If the substrate is an achiral molecule at the α-carbon, the inversion of configuration is not...
11.8K

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[Chapter 2. The embryo in abortion legislation].

Daniel Vigneau

    Journal International De Bioethique Et D'Ethique Des Sciences
    |March 22, 2018
    PubMed
    Summary

    The legal status of embryos has shifted significantly due to abortion laws. Once protected, embryos are now vital for medical research, creating a dual legal and ethical challenge.

    Area of Science:

    • Bioethics
    • Legal Studies
    • Medical Law

    Background:

    • Historically, embryos were protected by legal principles granting rights and penalizing abortion.
    • The "Veil" law of 1975 and subsequent legislation altered the legal landscape regarding abortion and embryo protection.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To analyze the evolution of legal and ethical considerations surrounding the human embryo.
    • To examine the impact of abortion legalization on embryo protection and its use in medical research.

    Main Methods:

    • Review of historical legal doctrines concerning the unborn.
    • Analysis of legislative changes in abortion laws and their implications.
    • Examination of the role of embryo and fetal tissues in contemporary medical research.

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    Main Results:

    • Legalization of abortion has led to a diminished protection of the embryo.
    • Medical advancements utilize abortion-derived tissues for research, creating new ethical considerations.
    • The embryo is now viewed as a subject of significant medical and scientific interest.

    Conclusions:

    • The legal status of the embryo has transformed from a protected entity to a resource for scientific advancement.
    • Contemporary bioethical debates must address the dual role of the embryo in law and medicine.
    • Balancing reproductive rights with the ethical use of embryonic material remains a critical challenge.