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Impedance Combination01:21

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Consider a string of christmas lights, each bulb symbolizing an impedance element. In this series configuration, the flow of electric current remains uniform across every component. This behavior aligns with Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL), which asserts that the total impedance in such a setup equals the sum of individual impedances—akin to resistors in series. It follows that the voltage from the power source is distributed proportionally among these components, adhering to the voltage...
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On comparing the reactivity of silver and lead, it is observed that the two ionic species, Ag+ (aq) and Pb2+ (aq), show a difference in their redox reactivity towards copper: the silver ion undergoes spontaneous reduction, while the lead ion does not. This relative redox activity can be easily quantified in electrochemical cells by a property called cell potential. This property is commonly known as cell voltage in electrochemistry, and it is a measure of the energy which accompanies the charge...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 12, 2026

In Situ Lithiated Reference Electrode: Four Electrode Design for In-operando Impedance Spectroscopy
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A Two-Wired Ultra-High Input Impedance Active Electrode.

Federico Nicolas Guerrero, Enrique Mario Spinelli

    IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems
    |March 24, 2018
    PubMed
    Summary

    This study introduces a novel two-wired active electrode for biopotential measurements. It offers ultrahigh input impedance and artifact reduction for clearer ECG, EEG, and EMG signals using dry electrodes.

    Area of Science:

    • Biomedical Engineering
    • Electronics
    • Signal Processing

    Background:

    • Dry-contact biopotential measurements face challenges with high input impedance, interference, and artifacts.
    • Traditional active electrodes often require complex circuitry or multiple wires, increasing cost and limiting application.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To present a novel, low-complexity, two-wired active electrode for ultrahigh input impedance biopotential measurements.
    • To demonstrate effective interference and artifact reduction in dc-coupled dry-contact measurements.
    • To provide a cost-effective solution for electrophysiological signal acquisition.

    Main Methods:

    • A power supply bootstrapping technique was employed to achieve ultrahigh input impedance.
    • The circuit design focused on reducing input capacitance and enabling two-wire measurements.

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  • A prototype was implemented using standard operational amplifiers.

    • Main Results:

    • Achieved an input capacitance as low as 71 fF with a 0-1 kHz bandwidth.
    • Demonstrated a common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) above 103 dB at 50 Hz.
    • Maintained 92 dB CMRR at 50 Hz with a 1.2 MΩ source impedance unbalance.
    • Successfully validated ECG and dry-contact EEG measurements.

    Conclusions:

    • The proposed two-wired active electrode offers a simple, low-cost, and effective solution for high-impedance biopotential measurements.
    • It significantly reduces interference and artifacts, suitable for ECG, EEG, and EMG.
    • The design is easily replicable and applicable to other high-impedance sources.