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Related Concept Videos

Factors Affecting α-Alkylation of Ketones: Choice of Base01:10

Factors Affecting α-Alkylation of Ketones: Choice of Base

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α-Alkylation of ketones is achieved in the presence of alkyl halides and a base. The reaction proceeds via the formation of an enolate ion followed by nucleophilic substitution. The choice of base employed is essential as it is the key factor in determining the reaction outcome.
The reaction involving bases like EtO− whose conjugate acid EtOH (pKa = 15.9) is stronger than the ketone (pKa = 19.2) results in an equilibrium mixture with higher ketone concentration. As a consequence,...
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Translation01:31

Translation

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Lesson: Translation
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
Translation Produces the Building Blocks of...
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Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
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Initiation of Translation02:33

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Initiating translation is complex because it involves multiple molecules. Initiator tRNA, ribosomal subunits, and eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs) are all required to assemble on the initiation codon of mRNA. This process consists of several steps that are mediated by different eIFs.
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Base complementarity between the three base pairs of mRNA codon and the tRNA anticodon is not a failsafe mechanism. Inaccuracies can range from a single mismatch to no correct base pairing at all. The free energy difference between the correct and nearly correct base pairs can be as small as 3 kcal/ mol. With complementarity being the only proofreading step, the estimated error frequency would be one wrong amino acid in every 100 amino acids incorporated. However, error frequencies observed in...
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Termination of Translation01:44

Termination of Translation

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The large ribosomal subunit has several important structures essential to translation. These include the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) - which is the site where the peptide bond is formed - and a large, internal, water-filled tube through which the nascent polypeptide moves. This latter structure is called the Peptide Exit Tunnel, and it begins at the PTC and spans the body of the large ribosomal subunit. During translation, as the nascent polypeptide chain is synthesized, it passes through...
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Dopamine, Effort-Based Choice, and Behavioral Economics: Basic and Translational Research.

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Summary

Effort-based decisions in operant behavior are influenced by work requirements, not just rewards. Dopamine (DA) transmission in the brain bidirectionally regulates effort, impacting motivation and potentially treating disorders.

Keywords:
accumbensdepressioneffort-related decision makingmodelsmotivationrewardventral striatum

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Behavioral Economics
  • Psychology

Background:

  • Operant behavior is regulated by reinforcement quality/quantity and work requirements.
  • Organisms make effort-related decisions using cost/benefit analyses.
  • Effort-based decision making involves choices between high-effort/high-reward and low-effort/low-reward options.

Purpose of the Study:

  • Investigate the neural regulation of effort-based decision making.
  • Examine the role of the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system in regulating effort.
  • Develop animal models for motivational symptoms in psychiatric and neurological disorders.

Main Methods:

  • Behavioral procedures offering effort-based choices.
  • Pharmacological manipulation of dopamine transmission (e.g., DA transport blockers).
  • Optogenetic, chemogenetic, and physiological techniques.

Main Results:

  • Mesolimbic DA transmission bi-directionally controls effort exertion.
  • Interference with DA transmission leads to a low-effort bias.
  • Enhanced DA transmission increases selection of high-effort options.

Conclusions:

  • Dopamine plays a crucial role in regulating effort-based motivation.
  • Effort-based choice tasks serve as valuable animal models for motivational dysfunction.
  • Research may lead to new treatments for disorders characterized by motivational deficits.