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Cooperative Allosteric Transitions01:58

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Cooperative allosteric transitions can occur in multimeric proteins, where each subunit of the protein has its own ligand-binding site. When a ligand binds to any of these subunits, it triggers a conformational change that affects the binding sites in the other subunits; this can change the affinity of the other sites for their respective ligands. The ability of the protein to change the shape of its binding site is attributed to the presence of a mix of flexible and stable segments in the...
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Punishment01:27

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Negative reinforcement and punishment are often confused but serve distinct functions in behavior modification. Reinforcement, whether positive or negative, increases the likelihood of a desired behavior, while punishment decreases it.
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Transcriptional regulators bind to specific cis-regulatory sequences in the DNA to regulate gene transcription. These cis-regulatory sequences are very short, usually less than ten nucleotide pairs in length. The short length means that there is a high probability of the exact same sequence randomly occurring throughout the genome.  Since regulators can also bind to groups of similar sequences, this further increases the chances of random binding. Transcriptional regulators form...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 12, 2026

A Procedure to Study Stress-Induced Relapse of Heroin Seeking after Punishment-Imposed Abstinence
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Cooperation and Punishment, Especially in Humans.

Andy Gardner, Stuart A West

    The American Naturalist
    |April 12, 2018
    PubMed
    Summary

    Altruistic cooperation is explained by costly punishment, not kinship. A positive correlation between punishment and received cooperation drives its evolution, challenging prior assumptions in evolutionary biology.

    Area of Science:

    • Evolutionary Biology
    • Sociology
    • Behavioral Economics

    Background:

    • Explaining altruistic cooperation, where individuals incur costs for others' benefit, is a major scientific challenge.
    • Existing theories include kinship, repeated interactions, and policing, with costly punishment emerging as a recent focus.
    • The evolutionary basis of costly punishment, despite its inherent expense to the punisher, remains unclear.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To analyze the conditions under which costly punishment evolves as a mechanism for promoting cooperation.
    • To investigate the role of relatedness versus other factors in the evolution of punishment.
    • To clarify the fundamental drivers of social trait evolution.

    Main Methods:

    • Utilizing a direct (neighbor-modulated) fitness approach.
    Keywords:
    human evolutionkin selectionneighbor‐modulated fitnesspolicingpublic‐goods gamerepression of competition

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  • Analyzing the conditions favoring the evolution of punishment strategies.
  • Examining the relationship between punishment, cooperation, and individual relatedness.

    • Main Results:

    • Contrary to previous hypotheses, genetic relatedness does not favor punishment; instead, it disfavors it.
    • The evolution of punishment is driven by a positive correlation between an individual's punishment strategy and the cooperation received.
    • This correlation can emerge through mechanisms like facultative behavioral adjustments.

    Conclusions:

    • The evolution of cooperation via costly punishment is not contingent on high relatedness between interacting individuals.
    • A key factor is the correlation between social partners' behaviors, such as cooperating more with those likely to punish.
    • This highlights that social correlations, beyond kinship, are fundamental to the evolution of social traits.