Complex microtubule structures are present in resting cells and in dividing cells. In resting cells, they are responsible for maintaining the cellular architecture, tracks for intracellular transport, positioning of organelles, assembly of cilia and flagella. They mediate the bipolar spindle assembly for chromosomal segregation and positioning of the cell division plate in dividing cells. The formation of microtubule complex structures depends on the cell type, cell stage, and cell function.

In this lesson, we delve into the role of ring conformation and its stability, which determines the spatial arrangement and, consequently, the molecular symmetry and stereoisomerism of cyclic compounds. 1,2-Dimethylcyclohexane is used as a case study to evaluate the possible number of stereoisomers. Here, given the multiple (n = 2) chiral centers, there are 2n = 4 possible configurations that lack a plane of symmetry, as the ring skeleton exists in a non-planar chair conformation. In addition,...

Cyclic voltammetry (CV) is an electrochemical technique used to investigate the redox properties of a chemical species. It involves measuring the current response of an electrochemical cell as a function of the applied potential. The setup for cyclic voltammetry typically consists of a working electrode, a reference electrode, and a counter electrode—all immersed in an electrolyte solution. The working electrode is where the redox reaction of interest occurs, while the reference electrode...

Proteins can form homomeric complexes with another unit of the same protein or heteromeric complexes with different types.  Most protein complexes self-assemble spontaneously via ordered pathways, while some proteins need assembly factors that guide their proper assembly. Despite the crowded intracellular environment, proteins usually interact with their correct partners and form functional complexes.
Many viruses self-assemble into a fully functional unit using the infected host cell to...

A thermodynamic system with zero heat exchange and work is an isolated system. For these systems, the internal energy remains constant.
In the case of a non-isolated system, the change in the internal energy is zero only if the process is cyclic. A thermodynamic process is considered cyclic if the system undergoes a series of changes and returns to its initial state. 
Consider a cyclic process that returns to its initial state, undergoing a four-step process. The heat transfer along each...

The eukaryotic nucleus is a double membrane-bound organelle that contains nearly all of the cell’s genetic material in the form of chromosomes. It is rightly called the “brain” of the cell as it shoulders the responsibility of responding to various physiological processes, stress, altered metabolic conditions, and other cellular signals. 
The nucleus contains many membrane-less subnuclear organelles or nuclear bodies, such as nucleoli, Cajal bodies, speckles,...