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Updated: Feb 10, 2026

Murine Drinking Models in the Development of Pharmacotherapies for Alcoholism: Drinking in the Dark and Two-bottle Choice

Murine Drinking Models in the Development of Pharmacotherapies for Alcoholism: Drinking in the Dark and Two-bottle Choice

Published on: January 7, 2019

Some bottled water may be salubrious.

Leslie M Klevay¹

¹Professor Emeritus of Internal Medicine, University of North Dakota, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, 1301 North Columbia Rd., Grand Forks, ND, USA.

Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology : Organ of the Society for Minerals and Trace Elements (GMS)

|May 19, 2018

Summary

Hard drinking water may protect cardiovascular health. This study found most bottled waters are soft, unlike beer and wine, suggesting consumers should choose hard water for potential heart benefits.

Keywords:

Alcoholic beverages Cardiovascular health Copper Epidemiology Hard water Water quality

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Area of Science:

Cardiovascular Health
Water Chemistry
Public Health

Background:

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains a leading cause of mortality globally.
Previous research suggests a potential link between water hardness and CVD risk.
The mineral content of drinking water, particularly calcium and magnesium, influences its hardness.

Purpose of the Study:

To evaluate the hardness of bottled water products.
To compare the hardness of bottled water with alcoholic beverages like beer and wine.
To assess the implications of water hardness for cardiovascular health.

Main Methods:

Collected publicly available data on the water chemistry of 33 bottled water products.
Calculated water hardness, expressed as calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Classified water hardness based on US Geological Survey (USGS) criteria.

Main Results:

Approximately two-thirds of the evaluated bottled water products were classified as soft.
Only one-fifth of the products met the criteria for very hard water.
Both beer and wine were found to have very hard water profiles.

Conclusions:

The majority of bottled water products available to consumers are soft.
Hard water, found in beverages like beer and wine, may contribute to cardiovascular benefits.
Consumers and suppliers are advised to consider the implications of water hardness and potentially avoid soft water options.