Functional anatomy of the pigeon hand (Columba livia): A muscle stimulation study

The morphology and function of all muscles controlling the pigeon hand were analyzed. Muscle action was determined in situ by inducing contraction via silver wire electrodes in anesthetized birds. EMG electrodes were implanted in the test muscle and an adjacent muscle to monitor contraction and volume conduction respectively. Results indicate that pigeons have fine control of hand and digit movements. However, the directions of movement are restricted. Movements have been eliminated or severely limited in those directions that experience strong stress during flight. Such restrictions may reduce the amount of muscular activity required for stabilization of the hand and its components. Mobility is retained in directions not subject to large stresses and where movement is essential for the kinematics of flight to be executed properly. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.