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Protein Transport to the Stroma01:24

Protein Transport to the Stroma

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Chloroplasts are triple membrane structures with an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a thylakoid membrane, each containing distinct metabolite transporters, membrane translocons, and enzymes. Appropriate sorting and translocating these proteins to their correct membrane systems is essential for chloroplast function.
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Endocrine cells produce hormones to communicate with remote target cells found in other organs. The hormone reaches these distant areas using the circulatory system. This exposes the whole organism to the hormone but only those cells expressing hormone receptors or target cells are affected. Thus, endocrine signaling induces slow responses from its target cells but these effects also last longer.
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Bacterial signaling can occur within bacteria (intracellular) or between bacteria (intercellular). At times, a group of bacteria behaves like a community. To achieve this, they engage in quorum sensing, the perception of higher cell density that causes changes in gene expression. Quorum sensing involves both extracellular and intracellular signaling. The signaling cascade starts with a molecule called an autoinducer (AI). Individual bacteria produce AIs that move out of the bacterial cell...
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Yeast Signaling01:28

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Yeasts are single-celled organisms, but unlike bacteria, they are eukaryotes (cells with a nucleus). Cell signaling in yeast is similar to signaling in other eukaryotic cells. A ligand, such as a protein or a small molecule released from a yeast cell, attaches to a receptor on the cell surface. The binding stimulates second-messenger kinases to activate or inactivate transcription factors that further regulate gene expression. Many of the yeast intracellular signaling cascades have similar...
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Paracrine signaling allows cells to communicate with their immediate neighbors via secretion of signaling molecules. Such a signal can only trigger a response in nearby target cells because the signal molecules degrade quickly or are inactivated if not taken up. Prominent examples of paracrine signaling include nitric oxide signaling in blood vessels, synaptic signaling of neurons, the blood clotting system, tissue repair/wound healing, and local allergic skin reactions. Nitric oxide as a...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 9, 2026

Tracking Hypoxic Signaling within Encapsulated Cell Aggregates
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Hypoxic Signalling in Tumour Stroma.

Anu Laitala1, Janine T Erler1

  • 1Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC), University of Copenhagen (UCPH), Copenhagen, Denmark.

Frontiers in Oncology
|June 14, 2018
PubMed
Summary

Hypoxia-inducible transcription factors (HIFs) and HIF prolyl hydroxylases (PHDs) regulate tumor adaptation to low oxygen. This review focuses on PHD roles in the tumor stroma, crucial for cancer progression.

Area of Science:

  • Oncology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Biochemistry

Background:

  • Hypoxia is prevalent in solid tumors, driving cancer progression.
  • Hypoxia-inducible transcription factors (HIFs) mediate cellular adaptation to low oxygen by activating genes.
  • HIF prolyl hydroxylases (PHDs) are key oxygen sensors that regulate HIF stability.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review hypoxic signaling pathways within the tumor microenvironment.
  • To emphasize the role of HIFs and PHDs, particularly in the tumor stroma.
  • To highlight the understudied functions of PHDs in stromal cells during cancer progression.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of studies on hypoxic signaling in tumors.
  • Focus on the roles of HIFs and PHDs in cancer cells and the tumor stroma.
Keywords:
HIFPHDshypoxiametastasistumour stroma

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  • Analysis of existing data regarding PHD function in stromal cells.

    • Main Results:

    • HIFs are critical for cancer cell adaptation to hypoxia.
    • PHDs regulate HIF activity by controlling HIF-α subunit degradation.
    • The function of PHDs in stromal cells within the tumor microenvironment is less understood but significant.

    Conclusions:

    • HIF and PHD signaling are integral to tumor progression.
    • Further research into PHD functions in the tumor stroma is warranted.
    • Targeting stromal PHD activity may offer novel therapeutic strategies for cancer.