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Related Concept Videos

The Thyroid Gland01:23

The Thyroid Gland

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The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
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The thyroid hormone (TH) plays a pivotal role in the intricate orchestration of physiological processes, exerting profound effects on development, metabolism, and homeostasis throughout different life stages.
TH is indispensable for the normal development and maturation of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems during fetal and childhood growth. It facilitates bone mineral turnover and regulates protein synthesis in developing tissues, contributing significantly to overall growth and...
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Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The...
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The muscles of the eye are sophisticated structures that control eye movement and focus, allowing for the precise and rapid adjustments necessary for vision. The human eye is controlled by ten muscles — six extraocular muscles, three intraocular muscles, and one primary eyelid retractor muscle.
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Optical perception, or vision, is an extraordinary sense dependent on converting light signals received via the ocular organs. These organs, known as eyes, are securely positioned within the bony cavities of the skull, called orbits. The orbits serve a dual purpose: a protective shield for the ocular globes and a stable attachment point for the soft ocular tissues. The eye's external protective mechanisms include the eyelids, which are edged with lashes that act as a barrier against foreign...
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Light rays enter the eye through the cornea, a transparent dome-shaped tissue that is the eye's outermost layer. The cornea bends or refracts, light rays traveling to the pupil. The shape of the cornea determines how much of the light is bent and whether the image will be focused correctly on the retina at the back of the eye. Once the light has passed through both refraction layers, it converges into a single focal point onto a small area. This is where photoreceptors start transforming...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 9, 2026

Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model
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Phenotypes of Thyroid Eye Disease.

Jimmy M Uddin1, Tal Rubinstein, Shirin Hamed-Azzam

  • 1Moorfields Eye Hospital, Adnexal Service, London, United Kingdom.

Ophthalmic Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
|June 16, 2018
PubMed
Summary

A new classification system for thyroid eye disease (TED) identifies six distinct phenotypes based on clinical and radiologic features. This approach better captures TED

Area of Science:

  • Ophthalmology
  • Endocrinology
  • Medical Imaging

Background:

  • Thyroid eye disease (TED) presents with heterogeneous clinical manifestations and variable treatment responses.
  • Existing TED classifications are often dichotomous and fail to capture the full spectrum of the disease's heterogeneity.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To introduce a novel classification system for thyroid eye disease (TED).
  • The system categorizes TED based on distinct phenotypic features, incorporating both clinical and radiologic data.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of clinical features, photographic documentation, and orbital imaging in TED patients.
  • Correlation of phenotypic characteristics with disease natural history and treatment outcomes.
  • Identification and description of phenotypically distinct patient categories.

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Main Results:

  • Six distinct phenotypes of TED were identified and described.
  • These include congestive (active inflammatory), "white eye" expansion, "hydraulic" apex, "white eye" apex, cicatricial active, and cicatricial passive phenotypes.

Conclusions:

  • The observable characteristics of TED are linked to its underlying pathophysiology.
  • This new classification acknowledges TED's heterogeneity in pathogenesis, clinical presentation, and treatment response.
  • The proposed system offers a more comprehensive approach to understanding and managing TED compared to previous dichotomous categorizations.