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Related Concept Videos

Formal Charges02:42

Formal Charges

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In some cases, there are seemingly more than one valid Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions. The concept of formal charges can be used to help predict the most appropriate Lewis structure when more than one reasonable structure exists.
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In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus — which contains the protons and neutrons of each atom and thus identifies the element — remains unchanged. Electrons, however, can be added to atoms by transfer from other atoms, lost by transfer to other atoms, or shared with other atoms. The transfer and sharing of electrons among atoms govern the chemistry of the elements. During the formation of some compounds, atoms gain or lose electrons to form electrically charged particles called...
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Metallic solids such as crystals of copper, aluminum, and iron are formed by metal atoms. The structure of metallic crystals is often described as a uniform distribution of atomic nuclei within a “sea” of delocalized electrons. The atoms within such a metallic solid are held together by a unique force known as metallic bonding that gives rise to many useful and varied bulk properties.
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Network covalent solids contain a three-dimensional network of covalently bonded atoms as found in the crystal structures of nonmetals like diamond, graphite, silicon, and some covalent compounds, such as silicon dioxide (sand) and silicon carbide (carborundum, the abrasive on sandpaper). Many minerals have networks of covalent bonds.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 8, 2026

Selective Area Modification of Silicon Surface Wettability by Pulsed UV Laser Irradiation in Liquid Environment
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Ultrahigh-charge electron beams from laser-irradiated solid surface.

Yong Ma1,2, Jiarui Zhao1, Yifei Li1

  • 1Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|June 20, 2018
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Researchers generated highly collimated, high-charge relativistic electron beams using intense lasers on solid targets. This new method overcomes limitations of previous techniques, enabling new applications in dense matter research.

Keywords:
direct laser accelerationhigh energy densitylaser–plasma interactionnear–critical-density plasmaultrahigh-charge beam

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Area of Science:

  • Plasma Physics
  • Laser-Particle Acceleration
  • High Energy Density Physics

Background:

  • Current laser-plasma acceleration methods produce electron beams with low charge or high divergence.
  • Compact, high-charge, and collimated electron beams are crucial for advanced applications.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To report a novel method for generating highly collimated relativistic electron beams with extremely high charge.
  • To investigate the underlying acceleration mechanism using particle-in-cell simulations.

Main Methods:

  • Interaction of a powerful subpicosecond laser pulse with a solid target at grazing incidence.
  • Utilizing particle-in-cell simulations to model the laser-plasma interaction and electron acceleration.

Main Results:

  • Generation of electron beams with a few degrees divergence, nonthermal spectra peaked at MeV, and ~100 nC charge.
  • Simulations reveal a direct laser acceleration scenario involving self-filamentation and periodic bunch acceleration/collimation.
  • Achieved high energy density in high-Z materials, suitable for driving warm/hot dense matter states.

Conclusions:

  • The grazing incidence laser-solid interaction scheme is effective for producing high-quality relativistic electron beams.
  • This technique offers a promising tool for creating extreme states of matter.
  • The findings advance compact particle acceleration for scientific research and potential applications.