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Related Concept Videos

Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery01:27

Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery

765
Insulin preparations are categorized by their duration of action into short-acting and long-acting types. Two strategies are used to modify insulin's absorption and pharmacokinetic profile: slowing the absorption post-subcutaneous injection, or altering human insulin's amino acid sequence or protein structure. These changes retain the insulin's ability to bind to the insulin receptor, but alter its behavior in solution or after injection.
Short-acting insulins are divided into...
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Ionic Radii03:10

Ionic Radii

33.6K
Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it is smaller than the atom from which it is derived. For example, the covalent radius of an aluminum atom (1s22s22p63s23p1) is 118 pm, whereas the ionic radius of an Al3+ (1s22s22p6) is 68 pm. As electrons are removed from the outer valence shell, the remaining core electrons occupying smaller shells experience a greater effective nuclear...
33.6K
Ionic Bonds00:42

Ionic Bonds

131.4K
Overview
When atoms gain or lose electrons to achieve a more stable electron configuration they form ions. Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between ions with opposite charges. Ionic compounds are rigid and brittle when solid and may dissociate into their constituent ions in water. Covalent compounds, by contrast, remain intact unless a chemical reaction breaks them.
Opposing Charges Hold Ions Together in Ionic Compounds
Ionic bonds are reversible electrostatic interactions between ions...
131.4K
Molecular and Ionic Solids02:54

Molecular and Ionic Solids

20.2K
Crystalline solids are divided into four types: molecular, ionic, metallic, and covalent network based on the type of constituent units and their interparticle interactions.
Molecular Solids
Molecular crystalline solids, such as ice, sucrose (table sugar), and iodine, are solids that are composed of neutral molecules as their constituent units. These molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces such as London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, or hydrogen bonds, which...
20.2K
Solubility of Ionic Compounds02:55

Solubility of Ionic Compounds

68.3K
Solubility is the measure of the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature and pressure. Solubility is usually measured in molarity (M) or moles per liter (mol/L). A compound is termed soluble if it dissolves in water.
68.3K
Ionic Crystal Structures02:42

Ionic Crystal Structures

17.2K
Ionic crystals consist of two or more different kinds of ions that usually have different sizes. The packing of these ions into a crystal structure is more complex than the packing of metal atoms that are the same size.
Most monatomic ions behave as charged spheres, and their attraction for ions of opposite charge is the same in every direction. Consequently, stable structures for ionic compounds result (1) when ions of one charge are surrounded by as many ions as possible of the opposite...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 8, 2026

Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass with Low-cost Ionic Liquids
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Ionic liquids for oral insulin delivery.

Amrita Banerjee1, Kelly Ibsen1,2,3, Tyler Brown2

  • 1Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|June 27, 2018
PubMed
Summary

Researchers developed an oral insulin formulation using choline and geranate (CAGE) ionic liquid. This CAGE-based insulin effectively lowers blood glucose for extended periods, offering a promising alternative to injections for diabetes management.

Keywords:
bioavailabilityionic liquidoral insulin deliveryperoralstability

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Area of Science:

  • Biotechnology
  • Pharmaceutical Sciences
  • Drug Delivery

Background:

  • Rising global diabetes mellitus cases necessitate improved glycemic control methods.
  • Poor patient adherence to injectable insulin therapy highlights the need for alternative delivery systems.
  • The gastrointestinal tract poses significant challenges for oral delivery of biologic drugs like insulin.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop an effective oral insulin formulation for enhanced patient compliance.
  • To overcome the barriers of enzymatic degradation and poor absorption in the GI tract.
  • To evaluate the efficacy and safety of insulin formulated with choline and geranate (CAGE) ionic liquid.

Main Methods:

  • Formulation of insulin with choline and geranate (CAGE) ionic liquid.
  • Assessment of CAGE's effect on insulin's paracellular transport, enzymatic stability, and mucus interaction.
  • In vivo pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies in rats following jejunal administration.
  • Evaluation of oral glucose-lowering effects using enterically coated capsules via oral gavage.
  • Biocompatibility and stability assessments of the insulin-CAGE formulation.

Main Results:

  • CAGE significantly enhanced insulin's paracellular transport and protected it from degradation.
  • Insulin-CAGE demonstrated sustained reduction in blood glucose levels for up to 12 hours in rats.
  • Oral administration of 10 U/kg insulin-CAGE resulted in a 45% decrease in blood glucose.
  • The formulation showed high biocompatibility and stability for at least 4 months under refrigeration.

Conclusions:

  • Choline and geranate (CAGE) ionic liquid is a highly effective vehicle for oral insulin delivery.
  • CAGE overcomes key barriers to oral biologic drug delivery, including enzymatic degradation and mucus.
  • This novel oral formulation offers a promising, non-injectable alternative for diabetes management and other biologic therapies.