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Among all the organelles in an animal cell, only mitochondria have their own independent genomes. Animal mitochondrial DNA is a double-stranded, closed-circular molecule with around 20,000 base pairs. Mitochondrial DNA is unique in that one of its two strands, the heavy, or H, -strand is guanine rich, whereas the complementary strand is cytosine rich and called the light, or L, -strand. Compared to nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA has a very low percentage of non-coding regions and is marked by...
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A eukaryotic cell can have up to three different types of genetic systems: nuclear, mitochondrial, and chloroplast. During evolution, organelles have exported many genes to the nucleus; this transfer is still ongoing in some plant species. Approximately 18% of the Arabidopsis thaliana nuclear genome is thought to be derived from the chloroplast’s cyanobacterial ancestor, and around 75% of the yeast genome derived from the mitochondria’s bacterial ancestor. This export has occurred...
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The present-day mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes have retained some of the characteristics of their ancestral prokaryotes and also have acquired new attributes during their evolution within eukaryotic cells. Like prokaryotic genomes, mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes neither bind with histone-like proteins nor show complex packaging into chromosome-like structures, as observed in eukaryotes. Unlike mitotic cell divisions observed in eukaryotic cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts...
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Genetic transfer occurs when genetic information is passed from one organism to another. It occurs via two mechanisms: vertical gene transfer and horizontal gene transfer. Vertical gene transfer occurs when genetic information is transferred from one generation to the next, which happens much more frequently than horizontal gene transfer. Both sexual and asexual reproduction are forms of vertical gene transfer, where one or more organisms pass some or all of their genome onto their progeny.
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The ethical gene.

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Updated: Feb 8, 2026

Measuring Mitochondrial Electron Transfer Complexes in Previously Frozen Cardiac Tissue from the Offspring of Sow: A Model to Assess Exercise-Induced Mitochondrial Bioenergetics Changes
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Mandatory sex selection and mitochondrial transfer.

Reuven Brandt

    Bioethics
    |July 7, 2018
    PubMed
    Summary

    Mandatory sex selection in mitochondrial replacement techniques is not adequately justified, even with Institute of Medicine endorsement. Arguments for this policy, including revisions, fail to convincingly defend its intrusiveness.

    Area of Science:

    • Bioethics
    • Reproductive Technologies
    • Genetics

    Background:

    • The Institute of Medicine endorsed mandatory sex selection against female offspring for mitochondrial replacement techniques.
    • John Appleby's arguments support mandatory sex selection in early trials.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To critically evaluate the arguments for mandatory sex selection in mitochondrial replacement techniques.
    • To determine if the justifications for mandatory sex selection are adequate and defensible.

    Main Methods:

    • Philosophical and ethical analysis of existing arguments.
    • Examination of the plausibility of revised arguments for mandatory sex selection.

    Main Results:

    • Appleby's original arguments for mandatory sex selection are deemed inadequate.
    Keywords:
    assisted reproductionmitochondriamitochondrial donationreproductive risksex selection

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  • Even revised arguments fail to convincingly support such an intrusive policy.

    • Conclusions:

    • The case for mandatory sex selection in mitochondrial replacement techniques has not been satisfactorily made.
    • The ethical and practical justifications for mandatory sex selection require further rigorous examination.