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Longitudinal Research

Longitudinal Research

Sometimes we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. When we test the same group of individuals repeatedly over an extended period of time, we are conducting longitudinal research. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time. For example, we may survey a group of individuals about their dietary habits at age 20, retest them a decade later at age 30, and then again...

Longitudinal Studies

Longitudinal Studies

Longitudinal studies are also widely used in other medical and social science fields. For instance, in cardiovascular research, they can monitor patients' health over decades to identify risk factors for heart disease, such as high cholesterol or smoking, and evaluate the long-term effectiveness of preventive measures. Similarly, in mental health studies, researchers might follow individuals from adolescence into adulthood to understand the development and progression of conditions like...

Avoidance Learning and Learned Helplessness

Avoidance Learning and Learned Helplessness

Avoidance learning and learned helplessness are critical concepts in understanding behavioral responses to negative stimuli.
Avoidance learning occurs when an organism learns that a specific behavior can prevent an unpleasant outcome. For example, a student who receives a bad grade may start studying harder to avoid future poor grades. This behavior persists even when the negative outcome is no longer present. Avoidance learning is powerful because it maintains behavior in the absence of the...

Associative Learning

Associative Learning

Associative learning is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology, wherein a connection is established between two stimuli or events, leading to a learned response. This process is critical in understanding how behaviors are acquired and modified. Conditioning, the mechanism through which associations are formed, can be divided into two main types: classical conditioning and operant conditioning, each elucidating different aspects of associative learning.
Classical conditioning, also known...

Purposive Learning

Purposive Learning

E. C. Tolman emphasized the purposiveness of behavior — the idea that much of our behavior is goal-directed. For instance, employees who aim for a promotion work diligently to meet their targets. Tolman argued that when classical conditioning and operant conditioning occur, the organism acquires certain expectations. In classical conditioning, a child might fear a dog because they expect it to bite. In operant conditioning, a person might consistently work overtime because they expect a...

Observational Learning

Observational Learning

Albert Bandura's observational learning, also known as imitation or modeling, occurs when a person observes and imitates another's behavior. It is a quicker process than operant conditioning. A well-known example is the Bobo doll study, where children who saw an adult acting aggressively towards the doll were more likely to act aggressively when left alone, compared to those who observed a nonaggressive adult. Many psychologists view observational learning as a form of latent learning...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 8, 2026

Simultaneous Study of the Recruitment of Monocyte Subpopulations Under Flow In Vitro

Simultaneous Study of the Recruitment of Monocyte Subpopulations Under Flow In Vitro

Published on: November 26, 2018

Recruiting for a multicentre DoD and VA longitudinal study: lessons learned.

Kevin Sickinger¹, William C Walker^1,2, Amma A Agyemang¹

¹a Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation , Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond, VA , USA.

|July 10, 2018

Summary

Effective recruitment strategies for military service members and Veterans in long-term studies were identified. Focused approaches and a dedicated recruitment director significantly boosted participant numbers and diversity.

Keywords:

Recruitment longitudinal study service members veterans

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Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Clinical Research
Military Health

Background:

Recruiting military service members and Veterans for longitudinal studies presents unique challenges.
Previous recruitment efforts may not have fully addressed the specific needs and organizational structures of this population.

Purpose of the Study:

To identify and describe effective recruitment practices for a large, multi-site, longitudinal, observational study involving military service members and Veterans.
To improve participant recruitment and retention in studies focusing on the health outcomes of military personnel and Veterans.

Main Methods:

A descriptive study design was employed across four Chronic Effects of Neurotrauma Consortium sites.
Focused recruitment strategies and the addition of a recruitment director with a relevant background were implemented.

Main Results:

Overall recruitment rates increased following the implementation of targeted strategies.
Cohort-specific recruitment also showed improvement, indicating enhanced engagement with diverse participant groups.
The addition of a military/Veteran-centric recruitment director was associated with significant gains in participant numbers.

Conclusions:

Site-specific recruitment strategies, tailored to local Institutional Review Board procedures and respecting service member organizational allegiances, are crucial for success.
Appointing a recruitment director with a background similar to the study participants positively impacted recruitment numbers and the inclusion of specific subpopulations.
These findings underscore the importance of culturally competent and adaptable recruitment approaches in military and Veteran research.