Monoubiquitinated γ-H2AX: Abundant product and specific biomarker for non-apoptotic DNA double-strand breaks

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are a highly toxic form of DNA damage produced by a number of carcinogens, drugs, and metabolic abnormalities. Involvement of DSBs in many pathologies has led to frequent measurements of these lesions, primarily via biodosimetry of S139-phosphorylated histone H2AX (γ-H2AX). However, γ-H2AX is also induced by some non-DSB conditions and abundantly formed in apoptosis, raising concerns about the overestimation of potential genotoxic agents and accuracy of DSB assessments. DSB-triggered γ-H2AX undergoes RNF168-mediated K13/K15 monoubiquitination, which is rarely analyzed in DSB/genotoxicity studies. Here we identified critical methodological factors that are necessary for the efficient detection of mono- (ub₁) and diubiquitinated (ub₂) γ-H2AX. Using optimized technical conditions, we found that γ-H2AX-ub₁ was a predominant form of γ-H2AX in three primary human cell lines containing mechanistically distinct types of DSBs. Replication stress-associated DSBs also triggered extensive formation of γ-H2AX-ub₁. For DSBs induced by oxidative damage or topoisomerase II, both γ-H2AX and γ-H2AX-ub₁ showed dose-dependent increases whereas γ-H2AX-ub₂ plateaued at low levels of breaks. Despite abundance of γ-H2AX, γ-H2AX-ub_1,2 formation was blocked in apoptosis, which was associated with proteolytic cleavage of RNF168. Chromatin damage also caused only the production of γ-H2AX but not its ub_1,2 forms. Our results revealed a major contribution of ubiquitinated forms to the overall γ-H2AX response and demonstrated the specificity of monoubiquitinated γ-H2AX as a biodosimeter of non-apoptotic DSBs.