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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 7, 2026

Behavioral Determination of Stimulus Pair Discrimination of Auditory Acoustic and Electrical Stimuli Using a Classical Conditioning and Heart-rate Approach
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Excitatory second-order conditioning using a backward first-order conditioned stimulus: A challenge for prediction

Arthur Prével1, Vinca Rivière1, Jean-Claude Darcheville1

  • 11 Laboratoire SCALab, UMR 9193, Université de Lille Nord de France, Campus de Lille 3, Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France.

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (2006)
|July 26, 2018
PubMed
Summary

This study shows that second-order conditioning can occur even when the first stimulus does not elicit a response. These findings support the Temporal Coding Hypothesis over the SOP model in explaining learning.

Keywords:
Conditioned reinforcementSOP modelTemporal Coding Hypothesisprediction error reductionsecond-order conditioning

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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Neuroscience
  • Behavioral Science

Background:

  • Excitatory learning with backward conditioned stimuli (CS) challenges prediction error reduction models.
  • Previous research suggests backward CSs can be excitatory, aligning with Temporal Coding Hypothesis and SOP model.
  • Conditioned reinforcement preparations explore learning mechanisms.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To discriminate between Temporal Coding Hypothesis and SOP model using a backward second-order conditioning preparation.
  • To investigate if a second-order CS can function as a conditioned reinforcer when paired with a non-responding backward first-order CS.
  • To extend previous findings on backward excitatory conditioning.

Main Methods:

  • Extended a conditioned reinforcement preparation to a backward second-order conditioning design.
  • Tested for evidence of conditioned reinforcement with a second-order CS.
  • Utilized a first-order CS that did not elicit a conditioned response (CR).

Main Results:

  • Evidence of conditioned reinforcement was found.
  • Conditioned reinforcement occurred despite the first-order backward CS eliciting no CR.
  • Second-order conditioning was observed without excitatory conditioning to the first-order CS.

Conclusions:

  • The results challenge the SOP model by demonstrating second-order conditioning without first-order excitatory conditioning.
  • Findings support the Temporal Coding Hypothesis, suggesting learning is driven by discrepancy rather than prediction error.
  • This study conceptually replicates findings in humans regarding backward second-order conditioning.