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Adult Stem Cells

Adult Stem Cells

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that divide and produce more stem cells or progenitor cells that differentiate into mature, specialized cell types. All the cells in the body are generated from stem cells in the early embryo, but small populations of stem cells are also present in many adult tissues including the bone marrow, brain, skin, and gut. These adult stem cells typically produce the various cell types found in that tissue—to replace cells that are damaged or to continuously...

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In contrast to passive transport, active transport involves a substance being moved through membranes in a direction against its concentration or electrochemical gradient. There are two types of active transport: primary active transport and secondary active transport. Primary active transport utilizes chemical energy from ATP to drive protein pumps that are embedded in the cell membrane. With energy from ATP, the pumps transport ions against their electrochemical gradients—a direction...

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In contrast to passive transport, active transport involves a substance being moved through membranes in a direction against its concentration or electrochemical gradient. There are two types of active transport: primary active transport and secondary active transport. Primary active transport utilizes chemical energy from ATP to drive protein pumps embedded in the cell membrane. With energy from ATP, the pumps transport ions against their electrochemical gradients—a direction they would...

Primary and Secondary Growth in Roots and Shoots

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Vascular plants, which account for over 90% of the Earth’s vegetation, all undergo primary growth—which lengthens roots and shoots. Many land plants, notably woody plants, also undergo secondary growth—which thickens roots and shoots.

Primary Production

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The total amount of energy acquired by primary producers in an ecosystem is called gross primary production (GPP). However, of this energy, producers use some for metabolic processes, and some is lost as heat, decreasing the amount of energy available to the next trophic level. The remaining usable amount of energy is called the net primary productivity (NPP). In terrestrial ecosystems, NPP is driven by climate, while light penetration and nutrient availability drive NPP in aquatic ecosystems.

Primary Distribution

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Primary distribution systems deliver electrical power from substations to consumers through various voltage classes, with 15-kV class voltages being predominant among U.S. utilities. Older 2.5- and 5-kV classes are being replaced by 15-kV primaries, while higher 25- to 34.5-kV classes are used in high-density urban areas and rural regions with long feeders. Three-phase, four-wire multigrounded systems are widely employed for balanced power delivery, using the neutral wire as a grounding point.

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Updated: Feb 7, 2026

Electrochemotherapy of Tumours

Electrochemotherapy of Tumours

Published on: December 15, 2008

Primary brain tumours in adults.

Sarah Lapointe¹, Arie Perry², Nicholas A Butowski¹

¹Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.

Lancet (London, England)

|August 1, 2018

Summary

Malignant brain tumors, particularly gliomas, are challenging to treat. Advances in molecular biology and neuro-oncology offer new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, but combination therapies are needed for better outcomes.

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Area of Science:

Neuro-oncology
Genomics
Cancer immunology

Background:

Primary central nervous system (CNS) tumors are diverse, with malignant types like gliomas having poor prognoses.
Malignant gliomas are the most common primary brain tumors in adults, characterized by poor survival rates.
Understanding glioma pathogenesis has been advanced by molecular biology, identifying key genetic alterations.

Purpose of the Study:

To highlight the impact of molecular biology and genomics on neuro-oncology.
To discuss the potential of new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for brain tumors.
To emphasize the need for translating research advances into effective clinical treatments.

Main Methods:

Review of recent advances in molecular biology, genomics, and CNS immunology.
Analysis of the revised 2016 WHO classification of CNS tumors incorporating molecular alterations.
Examination of current therapeutic approaches including targeted therapies, immunotherapies, and gene therapies.

Main Results:

Specific genetic alterations (IDH, 1p/19q codeletion, H3 Lys27Met, RELA-fusion) are now integrated into brain tumor classification.
Genomic and immunological advancements herald a new era in neuro-oncology with promise for diagnosis and treatment.
Single-agent therapies have shown limited success, indicating the necessity of combination therapies.

Conclusions:

Molecular understanding is crucial for the diagnosis, grading, and treatment of brain tumors.
Translating scientific advances into effective treatments remains a significant challenge.
Biomarker-targeted clinical trials are essential for efficient therapeutic development and achieving durable anti-tumor responses.