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Electron Transport Chain: Complex III and IV01:43

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During the electron transport chain, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are first transferred to complexes I and II, respectively. These two complexes then transfer the electrons to ubiquinol, which carries them further to complex III. Complex III passes the electrons across the intermembrane space to Cyt c, which carries them further to complex IV. Complex IV donates electrons to oxygen and reduces it to water. As electrons pass through complexes I, III, and IV, the energy released aids the pumping...
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A type of Lewis acid-base chemistry involves the formation of a complex ion (or a coordination complex) comprising a central atom, typically a transition metal cation, surrounded by ions or molecules called ligands. These ligands can be neutral molecules like H2O or NH3, or ions such as CN− or OH−. Often, the ligands act as Lewis bases, donating a pair of electrons to the central atom. These types of Lewis acid-base reactions are examples of a broad subdiscipline called coordination...
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The effectiveness of antimicrobial agents depends on various factors influencing their ability to eliminate microbial populations. Larger microbial populations require more time for complete eradication, emphasizing the importance of population size analysis when evaluating antimicrobial efficacy.Microbial resistance to antimicrobial agents varies significantly. Highly resilient microorganisms include endospores, gram-negative bacteria, and non-enveloped viruses, while prions are exceptionally...
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Crystal Field Theory
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 7, 2026

IridiumIII Luminescent Probe for Detection of the Malarial Protein Biomarker Histidine Rich Protein-II
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Biguanide Iridium(III) Complexes with Potent Antimicrobial Activity.

Feng Chen, John Moat, Daniel McFeely

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    |August 3, 2018
    PubMed
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    Novel organoiridium(III) complexes show potent antimicrobial activity against resistant bacteria and fungi. These selective, stable compounds deliver active biguanides, overcoming drug resistance and eradicating biofilms.

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    Area of Science:

    • Organometallic Chemistry
    • Antimicrobial Drug Discovery
    • Medicinal Chemistry

    Background:

    • Biguanides, like metformin, are known for their therapeutic properties.
    • Development of novel antimicrobial agents is crucial to combat rising drug resistance.
    • Organometallic complexes offer unique mechanisms for drug delivery and action.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To synthesize and characterize novel organoiridium(III) antimicrobial complexes.
    • To evaluate the antimicrobial and antifungal potency of these complexes.
    • To assess the selectivity, stability, and resistance potential of the new compounds.

    Main Methods:

    • Synthesis of organoiridium(III) complexes featuring chelated biguanides.
    • Characterization using NMR, ESI-MS, elemental analysis, and X-ray crystallography.
    • Evaluation of antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, including MRSA, and fungi (C. albicans, C. neoformans).
    • Cytotoxicity assays on mammalian cells.
    • Biofilm eradication assays.
    • Studies on coadministration with vancomycin against VRE.
    • Investigation of reactions with biomolecules.

    Main Results:

    • Novel 16- and 18-electron organoiridium(III) complexes were successfully synthesized and characterized.
    • Several complexes demonstrated potent activity against a broad spectrum of bacteria and fungi, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) in the nanomolar range.
    • High selectivity was observed, with low cytotoxicity toward mammalian cells.
    • The complexes exhibited excellent stability in broth medium and a low tendency to induce resistance mutations.
    • Co-administration restored vancomycin activity against vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE).
    • The complexes effectively disrupted and eradicated mature bacterial biofilms.
    • Evidence suggests these complexes deliver active biguanides into microorganisms, which are otherwise inactive alone.

    Conclusions:

    • Novel organoiridium(III) biguanide complexes represent a promising new class of antimicrobial agents.
    • These compounds exhibit potent, selective, and stable antimicrobial activity, addressing key challenges in drug resistance.
    • Their ability to restore antibiotic efficacy and eradicate biofilms highlights their therapeutic potential.
    • The mechanism involves targeted delivery of active biguanides, offering a novel approach to antimicrobial therapy.