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Related Concept Videos

meta-Directing Deactivators: –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –⁠CO2R, –COR, –CO2H01:13

meta-Directing Deactivators: –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –⁠CO2R, –COR, –CO2H

6.7K
All meta-directing substituents are deactivating groups. These substituents withdraw electrons from the aromatic ring, making the ring less reactive toward electrophilic substitution. For example, the nitration of nitrobenzene is 100,000 times slower than that of benzene because of the deactivating effect of the nitro group. The first step in an electrophilic aromatic substitution is the addition of an electrophile to form a resonance-stabilized carbocation. The energy diagrams for...
6.7K
2° Amines to N-Nitrosamines: Reaction with NaNO201:20

2° Amines to N-Nitrosamines: Reaction with NaNO2

5.5K
Secondary amines react with nitrous acid to form N-nitrosamines, as depicted in Figure 1. Nitrous acid, a weak and unstable acid, is formed in situ from an aqueous solution of sodium nitrite and strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, in cold conditions. In the presence of an acid, the nitrous acid gets protonated. The subsequent loss of water results in the formation of the electrophile known as nitrosonium ion.
5.5K
SN2 Reaction: Kinetics02:14

SN2 Reaction: Kinetics

10.3K
Kinetic Studies and Significance
In a chemical reaction, a relationship exists between the concentration of reactants and the rate at which the reaction proceeds. The study to measure this relationship is known as the kinetics of a chemical reaction. Kinetic studies are used to deduce the rate law of a chemical reaction, which provides information about the species involved during the transition state of the rate-determining step. Thus, kinetic studies help to derive the mechanism of a...
10.3K
SN2 Reaction: Mechanism02:27

SN2 Reaction: Mechanism

17.5K
The kinetic studies of SN2 reactions suggest an essential feature of its mechanism: it is a single-step process without intermediates. Here, both the nucleophile and the substrate participate in the rate-determining step.
The presence of the more electronegative halogen in the substrate creates a polarized carbon-halide bond. The halide pulls the electron cloud generating an electrophilic center at the carbon atom. Thus, the carbon atom carries a partial positive charge while the halide has a...
17.5K
SN2 Reaction: Transition State02:26

SN2 Reaction: Transition State

12.0K
An SN2 reaction of an alkyl halide is a single-step process in which bond formation between the nucleophile and the substrate and bond breaking between the substrate and the halide occurs simultaneously through a transition state without forming an intermediate.
When the nucleophile approaches the electrophilic carbon with its lone pairs, the halide acts as a leaving group and moves away with the electron-pair bonded to the carbon. Dotted partial bonds represent the bonds being formed or broken...
12.0K
SN2 Reaction: Stereochemistry02:23

SN2 Reaction: Stereochemistry

11.8K
In an SN2 reaction, the nucleophilic attack on the substrate and departure of the leaving group occurs simultaneously through a transition state. As the nucleophile approaches the substrate from the back-side, the configuration of the substrate carbon changes from tetrahedral to trigonal bipyramidal and then back to tetrahedral, leading to an inversion in the configuration of the product.
If the substrate is an achiral molecule at the α-carbon, the inversion of configuration is not...
11.8K

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Gradient Echo Quantum Memory in Warm Atomic Vapor
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Less Than 2 °C Warming by 2100 Unlikely.

Adrian E Raftery1, Alec Zimmer2, Dargan M W Frierson3

  • 1Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Box 354322, Seattle, WA 98195-4322.

Nature Climate Change
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A new statistical model forecasts global temperature increases of 2.0-4.9°C by 2100, highlighting that rapid carbon intensity reduction is crucial for limiting warming to 1.5°C.

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Area of Science:

  • Climate Science
  • Environmental Modeling
  • Statistical Forecasting

Background:

  • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projections offer scenarios for 2100 but lack a fully statistical basis.
  • Previous climate projections did not fully incorporate statistical methods for forecasting CO2 emissions and temperature change.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a statistically-based probabilistic forecast of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and global temperature increase to 2100.
  • To provide a data-driven assessment of future climate change, considering population, economic growth, and carbon use.
  • To compare probabilistic forecasts with existing IPCC scenarios.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized a country-specific version of Kaya's identity for CO2 emissions analysis.
  • Developed a joint Bayesian hierarchical model for GDP per capita and carbon intensity.
  • Incorporated data from 1960-2010 and United Nations probabilistic population projections.

Main Results:

  • The 90% interval for cumulative CO2 emissions encompasses the IPCC's middle scenarios.
  • The projected likely range for global temperature increase is 2.0-4.9°C, with a median of 3.2°C.
  • Population growth was found to be a minor factor; emission mitigation policies already influence the data.

Conclusions:

  • Achieving the 1.5°C warming goal necessitates a significantly faster decline in carbon intensity than observed historically.
  • The statistical model provides a probabilistic forecast that differs from non-statistical IPCC scenarios.
  • Future climate mitigation strategies must prioritize accelerated reductions in carbon intensity.