Nonequilibrium self-assembly dynamics of icosahedral viral capsids packaging genome or polyelectrolyte

The survival of viruses partly relies on their ability to self-assemble inside host cells. Although coarse-grained simulations have identified different pathways leading to assembled virions from their components, experimental evidence is severely lacking. Here, we use time-resolved small-angle X-ray scattering to uncover the nonequilibrium self-assembly dynamics of icosahedral viral capsids packaging their full RNA genome. We reveal the formation of amorphous complexes via an en masse pathway and their relaxation into virions via a synchronous pathway. The binding energy of capsid subunits on the genome is moderate (~7k_BT₀, with k_B the Boltzmann constant and T₀ = 298 K, the room temperature), while the energy barrier separating the complexes and the virions is high (~ 20k_BT₀). A synthetic polyelectrolyte can lower this barrier so that filled capsids are formed in conditions where virions cannot build up. We propose a representation of the dynamics on a free energy landscape.