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Brainstem01:19

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The brainstem, located inferior to the brain and superior to the spinal cord, serves as a bridge between the cerebrum and the spinal cord. It plays a vital role in relaying information and controlling critical life functions. It comprises three primary regions: the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
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Gene therapy is a technique where a gene is inserted into a person’s cells to prevent or treat a serious disease. The added gene may be a healthy version of the gene that is mutated in the patient, or it could be a different gene that inactivates or compensates for the patient’s disease-causing gene. For example, in patients with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) due to a mutation in the gene for the enzyme adenosine deaminase, a functioning version of the gene can be...
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Cancer therapies are various modes of treatment, such as surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy that are administered to cancer patients.
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Retraction Note to: β adrenergic receptor modulated signaling in glioma models: promoting β adrenergic receptor‑β arrestin scaffold‑mediated activation of extracellular‑regulated kinase 1/2 may prove to be a panacea in the treatment of intracranial and spinal malignancy and extra‑neuraxial carcinoma.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 6, 2026

Comprehensive Endovascular and Open Surgical Management of Cerebral Arteriovenous Malformations
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Endovascular Therapy for Brainstem Arteriovenous Malformations.

George Zaki Ghali1, Michael George Zaki Ghali2, Emil Zaki Ghali3

  • 1United States Environmental Protection Agency, Arlington, Virginia, USA; Department of Toxicology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA.

World Neurosurgery
|August 28, 2018
PubMed
Summary

Brainstem arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are rare and dangerous. This review explores embolization as a standalone treatment for select brainstem AVMs, offering a potential therapeutic option.

Keywords:
AVMBrainstemCurativeEmbolizationEndovascularMultimodalTreatment

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Area of Science:

  • Neurology
  • Neurosurgery
  • Interventional Radiology

Background:

  • Brainstem arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) comprise approximately 5% of intracranial AVMs.
  • They present a significantly higher risk of hemorrhage and mortality compared to supratentorial AVMs.
  • Symptoms include neurological deficits and hydrocephalus, necessitating treatment for ruptured, symptomatic, or high-risk lesions.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review and discuss the potential role of embolization as monotherapy for brainstem AVMs.
  • To evaluate the efficacy and safety of embolization as a standalone treatment modality.
  • To highlight the current evidence gaps regarding monotherapeutic embolization for brainstem AVMs.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on brainstem AVMs and embolization techniques.
  • Analysis of studies reporting obliteration and complication rates for monotherapeutic embolization.
  • Discussion of angioarchitectural features influencing treatment decisions.

Main Results:

  • Embolization is frequently used adjunctively with microsurgery or stereotactic radiosurgery.
  • Preoperative embolization aids surgical resection and reduces hemorrhage.
  • Preradiosurgery embolization can reduce AVM size and improve obliteration rates.
  • Embolization shows promise as monotherapy for small brainstem AVMs with limited feeders to eloquent parenchyma.

Conclusions:

  • Embolization is a versatile tool in managing brainstem AVMs, often used adjunctively.
  • Further research is needed to fully establish the efficacy and safety of embolization as monotherapy for specific brainstem AVMs.
  • Understanding the role of embolization as monotherapy can expand treatment options for these challenging lesions.