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Atomic Orbitals02:44

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An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution function indicates the total probability of finding an electron within the thin shell at a distance r from the nucleus. The atomic orbitals have distinct shapes which are determined by l, the angular momentum quantum number. The orbitals are often drawn with a boundary surface, enclosing densest regions of the cloud.
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The mathematical expression known as the wave function, ψ, contains information about each orbital and the wavelike properties of electrons in an isolated atom. When atoms are bound together in a molecule, the wave functions combine to produce new mathematical descriptions that have different shapes. This process of combining the wave functions for atomic orbitals is called hybridization and is mathematically accomplished by the linear combination of atomic orbitals. The new orbitals that...
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Updated: Feb 6, 2026

Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of Orbital Fractures
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Fronto-naso-orbital Reconstructions.

Shih-Heng Chen, An-Ta Ko1, Hung-Chi Chen2

  • 1Far-Eastern Memorial Hospital, Banqiao, New Taipei, Taiwan.

Annals of Plastic Surgery
|August 31, 2018
PubMed
Summary

Reconstructing significant fronto-naso-orbital defects using cartilage or bone grafts with fascia achieves excellent facial symmetry and contour. Advanced 3D imaging aids complex cases, restoring appearance and social function.

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Area of Science:

  • Plastic Surgery
  • Craniofacial Reconstruction
  • Reconstructive Surgery

Background:

  • Significant defects in the fronto-naso-orbital area cause severe facial disfigurement.
  • Causes include tumor ablations, complex fractures, and craniofacial surgeries.
  • Restoring form and function is crucial for patient well-being.

Observation:

  • Eleven patients underwent reconstruction for fronto-naso-orbital defects.
  • Methods included cartilage grafts, bone grafts, and 3D CT-guided reconstruction.
  • Follow-up ranged from 3 to 25 years.

Findings:

  • All patients achieved good aesthetic and functional outcomes.
  • Symmetry, acceptable facial contour, and social reintegration were noted.
  • One patient required revision for contour refinement after 18 years.

Implications:

  • Carved cartilage or bone grafts with fascia are effective for midline defects.
  • 3D CT imaging and replica reformation enable precise reconstruction of complex defects.
  • Individualized approaches yield symmetric, aesthetic results, improving quality of life.