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Phase Transitions

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance's state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the solid pack closely together, generally in a pattern. The particles vibrate about their fixed positions but do not move or squeeze past their neighbors. In liquids, although the particles are closely spaced, they are randomly arranged. The position of the particles are not fixed—that is, they are free to move past their neighbors to...

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and standard pressure, a piece of dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, appearing to gradually disappear without ever forming any liquid. Snow and ice sublimate at temperatures below the melting point of water, a slow process that may be accelerated by winds and the reduced atmospheric pressures at high altitudes. When solid iodine is warmed, the solid sublimes...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy becomes large enough to partially overcome the forces holding the molecules or ions of the solid in their fixed positions, and the solid begins the process of transitioning to the liquid state or melting. At this point, the temperature of the solid stops rising, despite the continual input of heat, and it remains constant until all of the solid is...

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize (convert into vapor). The process is called vaporization—a surface phenomenon. Vaporization occurs when the thermal motion of the molecules overcome the intermolecular forces, and the molecules (at the surface) escape into the gaseous state. When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules...

Phase Diagrams

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. These diagrams indicate the physical states that exist under specific conditions of pressure and temperature and also provide the pressure dependence of the phase-transition temperatures (melting points, sublimation points, boiling points). Regions or areas labeled solid, liquid, and gas represent single phases, while lines or curves represent...

Properties of Transition Metals

Properties of Transition Metals

Transition metals are defined as those elements that have partially filled d orbitals. As shown in Figure 1, the d-block elements in groups 3–12 are transition elements. The f-block elements, also called inner transition metals (the lanthanides and actinides), also meet this criterion because the d orbital is partially occupied before the f orbitals.

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Related Experiment Video

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Author Spotlight: Non-Invasive High-Resolution Measurement of Chlorophyll Synthesis During De-Etiolation

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Kinetically Determined Phase Transition from Stage II (LiC

Qiang Liu¹, Shuai Li², Senhao Wang²

¹Wuhan Institute of Marine Electric Propulsion, China Shipbuilding Industry Corporation , Wuhan 430064 , China.

The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters

|September 11, 2018

Summary

Lithium ion insertion into graphite anodes is thermodynamically favorable but kinetically hindered. Understanding these phase transitions is key to optimizing rechargeable lithium batteries.

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Area of Science:

Materials Science
Electrochemistry
Physical Chemistry

Background:

Electrochemical insertion of lithium ions into graphite is fundamental to rechargeable lithium battery operation.
Understanding the thermodynamics and kinetics of these processes is crucial for designing advanced electrode materials.

Purpose of the Study:

To comprehensively elucidate the phase transition from stage II (LiC12) to stage I (LiC6) in graphite anodes.
To investigate the kinetic and thermodynamic factors governing this transition.

Main Methods:

Experimental characterizations of graphite anodes.
First-principles calculations to model lithium insertion and phase transitions.

Main Results:

The transition from stage II to stage I lithium graphite is thermodynamically allowed but kinetically prohibited.
Lithium ions exhibit a tendency to cluster into stage compounds rather than forming a solid solution.
At least three intermediate structures (1T, 2H, and 3R) precede the formation of the stage I (LiC6) phase.

Conclusions:

The kinetic barriers significantly impact the electrochemical behavior of graphite anodes.
These findings offer new insights into electrode process kinetics for rechargeable lithium batteries.
Optimizing lithium battery performance requires consideration of these complex phase transition dynamics.