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Updated: Feb 5, 2026
A Real-World High-Intensity Interval Training Protocol for Cardiorespiratory Fitness Improvement
Published on: February 22, 2022
Cardiorespiratory Fitness Is Inversely Associated With Clustering of Metabolic Syndrome Risk Factors: The Ball State
Elizabeth Kelley1, Mary T Imboden1, Matthew P Harber1
1Clinical Exercise Physiology Program, Human Performance Laboratory, Ball State University, Muncie, IN.
Objective:
The focus of this study was the association between the metabolic syndrome (MetSyn) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) defined as maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Although previous research has shown a relationship between MetSyn and CRF, most studies are based on less objective measures of CRF and different cardiometabolic risk factor thresholds from earlier guidelines.
Participants And Methods:
The metabolic markers included in the present study were central obesity, elevated plasma triglycerides, elevated fasting high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, impaired fasting plasma glucose, hypertension, or pharmacologic treatment for diagnosed hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, or diabetes. A cohort of 3636 adults (1629 women, 2007 men; mean ± SD age, 44.7±12.3 years) completed CRF and metabolic risk factor assessment between January 1, 1971, and November 1, 2016. The CRF was defined as a measured VO2max from a cardiopulmonary exercise test on a treadmill, with a respiratory exchange ratio value of 1.0 or more.
Results:
Prevalence of MetSyn (≥3 factors) was 26% (n=953) in the cohort, with men having a greater likelihood for MetSyn compared with women (P<.001). The difference in VO2max between those individuals with MetSyn and those without was approximately 2.3 (2.0-2.5) metabolic equivalents. Logistic regression analyses showed a significant inverse and graded association between quartiles of CRF and MetSyn for the group overall (P<.001), with odds ratios (95% CI) using the lowest fitness group as the referent group of 0.67 (0.55-0.81), 0.41 (0.34-0.51), and 0.10 (0.07-0.14) for VO2max (P<.001). The sex-specific odds ratios were 0.25 (0.18-0.34), 0.05 (0.02-0.10), and 0.02 (0.01-0.09) for women and 0.43 (0.31-0.59), 0.19 (0.14-0.27), and 0.03 (0.02-0.05) for men (P<.001).
Conclusion:
These results with current risk factor thresholds and a large number of women demonstrate that low VO2max is associated with MetSyn.
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