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Related Concept Videos

Reaction Mechanisms03:06

Reaction Mechanisms

30.9K
Chemical reactions often occur in a stepwise fashion, involving two or more distinct reactions taking place in a sequence. A balanced equation indicates the reacting species and the product species, but it reveals no details about how the reaction occurs at the molecular level. The reaction mechanism (or reaction path) provides details regarding the precise, step-by-step process by which a reaction occurs.
For instance, the decomposition of ozone appears to follow a mechanism with two steps:
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SN2 Reaction: Mechanism02:27

SN2 Reaction: Mechanism

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The kinetic studies of SN2 reactions suggest an essential feature of its mechanism: it is a single-step process without intermediates. Here, both the nucleophile and the substrate participate in the rate-determining step.
The presence of the more electronegative halogen in the substrate creates a polarized carbon-halide bond. The halide pulls the electron cloud generating an electrophilic center at the carbon atom. Thus, the carbon atom carries a partial positive charge while the halide has a...
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SN1 Reaction: Mechanism02:25

SN1 Reaction: Mechanism

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Kinetic studies of ionization of a tertiary halide in a protic solvent suggest that only the substrate participates in the rate-determining step (slow step). The nucleophile is involved only after the slowest step. The SN1 reaction takes place in a multiple-step mechanism. 
Firstly, the haloalkane ionizes to generate a carbocation intermediate and a halide ion. This heterolytic cleavage is highly endothermic with large activation energy. The ionization of the substrate, facilitated by a...
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Diffusion01:12

Diffusion

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Diffusion is the passive movement of substances down their concentration gradients—requiring no expenditure of cellular energy. Substances, such as molecules or ions, diffuse from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration in the cytosol or across membranes. Eventually, the concentration will even out, with the substance moving randomly but causing no net change in concentration. Such a state is called dynamic equilibrium, which is essential for maintaining overall...
219.2K
E2 Reaction: Kinetics and Mechanism02:45

E2 Reaction: Kinetics and Mechanism

12.5K
SN2 substitutions and E2 eliminations of alkyl halides proceed via a concerted pathway. While the nucleophile attacks the alpha carbon in SN2 reactions, it functions as a strong base and abstracts a beta hydrogen in the E2 mechanism. The rate-limiting transition state in E2 elimination reactions is characterized by partially broken carbon–hydrogen and carbon–halogen bonds and a partially formed pi bond between the alpha and beta carbons. The beta hydrogen and halide are eliminated...
12.5K
E1 Reaction: Kinetics and Mechanism02:46

E1 Reaction: Kinetics and Mechanism

17.8K
Here, in contrast to the E2 reaction mechanism, we delve into the aspects of the E1 reaction mechanism, which has two steps: rate-limiting loss of the leaving group and abstraction of the beta hydrogen by a weak base. Typically, the experimental proof for the E1 mechanism is via kinetic studies or isotope studies. While the former demonstrates the first-order kinetics—the dependence of the reaction solely on substrate concentration—the latter proves the abstraction of hydrogen only...
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Lrp4/Wise regulates palatal rugae development through Turing-type reaction-diffusion mechanisms.

Maiko Kawasaki1,2, Katsushige Kawasaki1,2,3, Fumiya Meguro1

  • 1Division of Oral Anatomy, Department of Oral Biological Science, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, Japan.

Plos One
|September 21, 2018
PubMed
Summary

Wise and Lrp4 proteins regulate the development of palatal rugae, which are patterned ridges in the mouth. These proteins are crucial for a reaction-diffusion mechanism involving Shh and Fgf signaling, ensuring proper structure formation.

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Area of Science:

  • Developmental Biology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Periodic patterning is observed in various animal structures, with Turing-type reaction-diffusion mechanisms implicated in organogenesis.
  • Palatal rugae, periodically patterned ridges on the mammalian hard palate, develop via a reaction-diffusion mechanism involving Sonic hedgehog (Shh) and Fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) signaling.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying palatal rugae development, specifically focusing on the roles of Wise and Lrp4.
  • To investigate how Wise and Lrp4 interact with Shh and Fgf signaling pathways in regulating palatal rugae patterning.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of gene expression patterns of Lrp4 and Wise during palatal rugae development.
  • Phenotypic analysis of Wise and Lrp4 mutant mice to observe palatal rugae morphology.
  • Examination of Shh and Fgf signaling pathway activity in Wise and Lrp4 mutants.

Main Results:

  • Lrp4 and Wise exhibit complementary expression patterns in developing palatal rugae.
  • Mutations in Wise or Lrp4 lead to highly disorganized palatal rugae.
  • Wise and Lrp4 mutants show downregulated Shh signaling and upregulated Fgf signaling.

Conclusions:

  • Wise and Lrp4 are essential regulators of palatal rugae development, likely by modulating reaction-diffusion mechanisms involving Shh and Fgf signaling.
  • Bone morphogenetic protein (Bmp) and Wnt signaling pathways play a partial role in this developmental process.