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Tumor Immunotherapy

Tumor Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is a treatment that boosts or manipulates the immune system to fight diseases, including cancer. For instance, by stimulating an immune response through vaccinations against viruses that cause cancers, like hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus, these diseases can be prevented. Nonetheless, some cancer cells can avoid the immune system due to their rapid mutation and division. The immune response to many cancers involves three phases: elimination, equilibrium, and escape.

What are Cells?

What are Cells?

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium or trillions of them, e.g., in humans. No matter what organism a cell is a part of, they share specific characteristics.
Basic Characteristics of Cells
A living cell has a plasma membrane, a bilayer of lipids that separates the aqueous solution inside the cell called the cytoplasm from the outside environment.
Furthermore, a living cell possesses genetic information...

What is Cell Signaling?

What is Cell Signaling?

Despite the protective membrane that separates a cell from the environment, cells need the ability to detect and respond to environmental changes. Additionally, cells often need to communicate with one another. Unicellular and multicellular organisms use a variety of cell signaling mechanisms to communicate to respond to the environment.

Chemistry of the Cell

Chemistry of the Cell

The cell is chemically composed of water, organic molecules and inorganic ions.
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Concentration Cells

Concentration Cells

A concentration cell is a type of a voltaic cell constructed by connecting two almost identical half-cells, both based on the same half-reaction and using the same electrode, differing only in the concentration of one redox species. A concentration cell's potential, therefore, is determined only by the concentration difference of the particular redox species.
Consider the following voltaic cell:

Cell Size

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Cell sizes vary widely among and within organisms. Bacterial cells range between 1-10 micrometers (μm)and are considerably smaller than most eukaryotic cells. The smallest bacteria are 0.1 μm in diameter—about a thousand times smaller than eukaryotic cells, which typically range from 10-100 μm.
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Cells can take in nutrients and water via diffusion through the plasma membrane itself or through specific channels in the membrane. The area of the membrane surrounding...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 5, 2026

Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Infection and Detection

Merkel Cell Polyomavirus Infection and Detection

Published on: February 7, 2019

Immunotherapy for Merkel Cell Carcinoma.

Kotaro Nagase¹, Yutaka Narisawa²

¹Division of Dermatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Saga University, 5-1-1 Nabeshima, Saga, Saga, 849-8501, Japan. kotaro@nagase-skin.com.

Current Treatment Options in Oncology

|September 22, 2018

Summary

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a rare skin cancer, shows promise with immunotherapy. Checkpoint inhibitors targeting PD-1/PD-L1 offer durable responses for advanced MCC, improving patient outcomes.

Keywords:

Avelumab Clinical trials Immunocheckpoint inhibitor Immunotherapy Merkel cell carcinoma Merkel cell polyomavirus

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Published on: October 30, 2013

Area of Science:

Oncology
Immunotherapy
Dermatology

Background:

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare, aggressive neuroendocrine skin cancer with high mortality.
Standard treatments include surgery and radiation for locoregional disease, and chemotherapy for metastatic MCC.
Chemotherapy for MCC often yields short-lived responses, with frequent relapses and metastasis.

Purpose of the Study:

To review emerging data on immunotherapy for advanced Merkel cell carcinoma.
To highlight the role of checkpoint inhibitors (CPIs) targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway in MCC treatment.

Main Methods:

Review of current literature and clinical trial data on immunotherapy in MCC.
Analysis of response rates, durability, and tolerability of PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors.

Main Results:

Checkpoint inhibitors (CPIs) demonstrate high objective response rates (ORR) in advanced MCC.
PD-1/PD-L1 pathway inhibitors provide prolonged, durable responses and good tolerability.
CPIs are now recommended by NCCN guidelines for metastatic MCC.

Conclusions:

Immunotherapy, particularly PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors, represents a significant advancement for advanced MCC.
Ongoing trials are exploring CPIs in various settings, including adjuvant therapy.
Immunotherapy offers a promising future for patients diagnosed with Merkel cell carcinoma.