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Plasmids

Plasmids

Plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA molecules found in bacteria, archaea, and some eukaryotic microbes like yeast. These small, circular DNA structures typically contain fewer than 30 genes, although some may exist linearly. Plasmids vary in their number within a cell, known as copy number. Single-copy plasmids are present in one copy per cell and multi-copy plasmids are present in multiple copies, reaching over 100 copies per cell.Plasmids usually replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA...

Resistivity

Resistivity

When a voltage is applied to a conductor, an electrical field is generated, and charges in the conductor feel the force due to the electrical field. The current density that results depends on the electrical field and the properties of the material. In some materials, including metals at a given temperature, the current density is approximately proportional to the electrical field. In these cases, the current density can be modeled as:

Resistance

Resistance

When a current moves through any conductor, the conductor causes some level of difficulty for the current to flow. The measure of that difficulty is known as the resistance of the material and is represented by R. Every material has its own resistance. In the case of conductors, heat is emitted whenever a current passes through them. Resistance depends on the resistivity of the material. Resistivity is a characteristic of the material used to fabricate electrical components, whereas the...

Equivalent Resistance

Equivalent Resistance

In circuit analysis, situations often arise where resistors are neither in series nor parallel configurations. To tackle such scenarios, three-terminal equivalent networks like the wye (Y) (Figure 1 (a)) or tee (T) and delta (Δ) (Figure 1 (b)) or pi (π) networks come into play. These networks offer versatile solutions and are frequently encountered in various applications, including three-phase electrical systems, electrical filters, and matching networks.

Resistance and Conductance

Resistance and Conductance

A conductor's DC resistance at a given temperature is influenced by its resistivity, length, and cross-sectional area. Resistivity is an inherent property of the conductor material, with annealed copper serving as the international standard for measurement. For instance, the resistivity of hard-drawn aluminum at 20 degrees Celsius is 61% of the standard conductivity of annealed copper.
Various factors impact the resistance of a conductor. Spiraling in stranded conductors increases their...

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 4, 2026

Quantification of Plasmid-Mediated Antibiotic Resistance in an Experimental Evolution Approach

Quantification of Plasmid-Mediated Antibiotic Resistance in an Experimental Evolution Approach

Published on: December 14, 2019

Plasmid-mediated resistance is going wild.

Monika Dolejska¹, Costas C Papagiannitsis²

¹Department of Biology and Wildlife Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic; CEITEC VFU, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno, Brno, Czech Republic.

|September 24, 2018

Summary

Wild animals carry multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria, acting as environmental indicators and spreading resistance globally. Plasmids facilitate the rapid spread of critical antimicrobial resistance genes in wildlife, mirroring trends in human and domestic animal populations.

Keywords:

AmpC beta-lactamases Carbapenemases Colistin ESBLs Plasmids Wildlife mcr genes

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Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Feb 4, 2026

Quantification of Plasmid-Mediated Antibiotic Resistance in an Experimental Evolution Approach

Quantification of Plasmid-Mediated Antibiotic Resistance in an Experimental Evolution Approach

Published on: December 14, 2019

Testing the Role of Multicopy Plasmids in the Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance

Testing the Role of Multicopy Plasmids in the Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance

Published on: May 2, 2018

VIGS-Mediated Forward Genetics Screening for Identification of Genes Involved in Nonhost Resistance

VIGS-Mediated Forward Genetics Screening for Identification of Genes Involved in Nonhost Resistance

Published on: August 23, 2013

Area of Science:

Environmental microbiology
Antimicrobial resistance
One Health

Background:

Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative bacteria are increasing in humans and animals.
Antibiotic use impacts the environment, leading to MDR bacteria in wildlife habitats.
Wild animals serve as indicators and reservoirs for antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Purpose of the Study:

To review plasmid-mediated resistance in wildlife Enterobacteriaceae.
To highlight resistance to critical antimicrobial classes like beta-lactams and colistin.
To compare wildlife resistance plasmids with those from human and livestock sources.

Main Methods:

Literature review of studies on wildlife Enterobacteriaceae isolates.
Analysis of plasmid-mediated resistance mechanisms, including ESBL, AmpC, carbapenemase, and colistin resistance.
Examination of completely sequenced plasmids from wildlife.

Main Results:

Plasmid-mediated resistance in wildlife Enterobacteriaceae is prevalent and similar to human/livestock strains.
Epidemic plasmids contribute to the dissemination of resistance genes via horizontal gene transfer.
Identified plasmids possess genes potentially aiding maintenance in antibiotic-free environments.

Conclusions:

Wildlife plays a significant role in the global dissemination of antimicrobial resistance.
Understanding plasmid features in wildlife is crucial for One Health approaches to combat MDR bacteria.
Further research into plasmid stability mechanisms in wildlife is warranted.