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Polyprotic acids of the type H2M constitute two ionizable protons. As a result, on titration with a base, they exhibit two equivalence points in the titration curve. During titration, the species H2M, HM−, and M2− will be present in the solution at different points. The fractions of H2M, HM−, and M2− present at the various instances of the titration are denoted by α0, α1, and α2, respectively.
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Updated: Feb 4, 2026

Comprehensive Compositional Analysis of Plant Cell Walls Lignocellulosic biomass Part I: Lignin
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Windthrows control biomass patterns and functional composition of Amazon forests.

Daniel Magnabosco Marra1,2,3, Susan E Trumbore1, Niro Higuchi2

  • 1Biogeochemical Processes Department, Max-Planck-Institute for Biogeochemistry, Jena, Germany.

Global Change Biology
|September 27, 2018
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Amazon windthrows significantly alter forest biomass and structure, with recovery taking decades. Disturbances favor fast-growing, soft-wooded species, impacting forest resilience and carbon dynamics.

Keywords:
biodiversitybiomass/carbon dynamics and resilienceforest blowdownsnatural disturbancesrecovery dynamicstree mortalitytropical forest ecosystems

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Area of Science:

  • Ecology
  • Forestry
  • Climate Science

Background:

  • Amazon forests hold substantial global biomass and tree species diversity.
  • Windthrows (snapped/uprooted trees) are a major natural disturbance in these forests.
  • Rates and mechanisms of forest recovery post-windthrow are not well understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To quantify biomass recovery after windthrows in Central Amazon terra-firme forests.
  • To understand the effects of windthrow severity and time since disturbance on forest structure and composition.
  • To develop a predictive framework for windthrow impacts on forest dynamics.

Main Methods:

  • Quantified biomass recovery based on windthrow severity (0%-70% tree mortality) and time since disturbance (4-27 years).
  • Utilized forest monitoring to analyze net biomass change (increment minus loss) and functional composition shifts.
  • Compared recovering forests to nearby undisturbed forests with ~255.6 Mg/ha biomass.

Main Results:

  • Recovering forests (4-27 years post-disturbance) had significantly lower biomass (65.2-91.7 Mg/ha) compared to undisturbed forests.
  • Even low windthrow severities (4%-20% mortality) caused decadal changes in biomass and structure.
  • Biomass recovery to 90% of pre-disturbance levels may take up to 40 years, with high post-windthrow mortality and unpredictable biomass loss.
  • Light-demanding, low-density genera (e.g., Cecropia, Inga) dominated recovery, leading to significant species turnover.

Conclusions:

  • Windthrows significantly impact Amazon forest resilience by favoring faster-growing, shorter-lived species.
  • The long recovery time suggests windthrows can control landscape-level biomass and carbon dynamics.
  • Forests may not fully recover before the next disturbance event, altering long-term ecosystem function.