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Updated: Feb 4, 2026

Breathing-controlled Electrical Stimulation BreEStim for Management of Neuropathic Pain and Spasticity
Published on: January 10, 2013
Neurosurgical Management of Spastic Conditions of the Upper Extremity
Karl Balsara1, Andrew Jea1, Jeffrey S Raskin1
1Section of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosurgery, Goodman Campbell Brain and Spine, Riley Hospital for Children, Indiana University School of Medicine, 705 Riley Hospital Drive, Suite #1134, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
Abstract:
Spasticity is a hypertonic segmental reflex pathway caused by a central nervous system injury. Spasticity of the upper extremity causes loss of function, joint contracture, pain, and poor cosmesis. Treatment aims to reduce or change the pathophysiology underlying the hyperactive reflex from dorsal sensory rootlets through the intrinsic machinery of the spinal cord to the neuromuscular junction. There are many treatments for upper extremity spasticity including oral medication, physiotherapy, intrathecal baclofen, and lesional or neuromodulatory surgical approaches. Goals of treatment must always be clearly defined, but neurosurgical management is most effective when paired with multidisciplinary therapies and caregiver participation.
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