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[Immunotherapy for locally advanced and metastasized bladder cancer]
1Abteilung für Urologie und Andrologie, Ordensklinikum, Barmherzige Schwestern, Linz, Österreich. wolfgang.loidl@ordensklinikum.at.
Abstract:
Urothelial carcinoma of the bladder is difficult to treat in advanced and metastatic stages. Several factors play a role: age, multimorbidity including impaired renal function and neuropathy make access to life-prolonging chemotherapy impossible in many cases. Improvements of response rates and overall survival in the second-line setting are not much different compared to best supportive care. However, the therapeutic landscape has changed dramatically during the last 2 years. Immunotherapies represented by checkpoint inhibitors have showed positive trial outcomes and have been approved by EMA (European Medicines Agency). Both in second-line therapy after platinum-based chemotherapy and in first-line therapy in unfit patients, these drugs can be used. New concepts with combinations of immunotherapeutic compounds are currently being examined in various trials. If we follow the data of other malignancies (melanoma and non-small cell lung cancer), the future looks optimistic.
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Overview of Advanced Functional Groups
Functional groups are groups of atoms with specific chemical properties that occur within organic molecules and are sometimes denoted as “R”. Functional groups can “functionalize” a compound by enabling it to adopt different physical and chemical properties.
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The table below summarizes some of the major functional groups in organic chemistry.
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