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Related Concept Videos

Translation01:31

Translation

156.4K
Lesson: Translation
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
Translation Produces the Building Blocks of...
156.4K
Translation01:31

Translation

17.8K
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
Translation Produces the Building Blocks of Life
Proteins are...
17.8K
Initiation of Translation02:33

Initiation of Translation

39.0K
Initiating translation is complex because it involves multiple molecules. Initiator tRNA, ribosomal subunits, and eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs) are all required to assemble on the initiation codon of mRNA. This process consists of several steps that are mediated by different eIFs.
First, the initiator tRNA must be selected from the pool of elongator tRNAs by eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2). The initiator tRNA (Met-tRNAi) has conserved sequence elements including modified bases at...
39.0K
Termination of Translation01:44

Termination of Translation

27.7K
The large ribosomal subunit has several important structures essential to translation. These include the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) - which is the site where the peptide bond is formed - and a large, internal, water-filled tube through which the nascent polypeptide moves. This latter structure is called the Peptide Exit Tunnel, and it begins at the PTC and spans the body of the large ribosomal subunit. During translation, as the nascent polypeptide chain is synthesized, it passes through...
27.7K
Design Consideration01:22

Design Consideration

576
Designing a structure involves a series of considerations, primarily the material's ultimate strength, calculated through tests that measure changes under increased force until the material reaches its breaking point or limit. The ultimate load, where the material breaks, is divided by its original cross-sectional area, resulting in the ultimate normal stress or strength. The ultimate shearing stress is another significant factor taken into account.
The factor of safety is another key...
576
Improving Translational Accuracy02:07

Improving Translational Accuracy

14.9K
Base complementarity between the three base pairs of mRNA codon and the tRNA anticodon is not a failsafe mechanism. Inaccuracies can range from a single mismatch to no correct base pairing at all. The free energy difference between the correct and nearly correct base pairs can be as small as 3 kcal/ mol. With complementarity being the only proofreading step, the estimated error frequency would be one wrong amino acid in every 100 amino acids incorporated. However, error frequencies observed in...
14.9K

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 4, 2026

Author Spotlight: Enhancing Accuracy and Reproducibility in Whole Bone Bending Tests
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Translational tests involving non-reward: methodological considerations.

Benjamin U Phillips1, Laura Lopez-Cruz2, Lisa M Saksida2,3,4

  • 1Department of Psychology and MRC/Wellcome Trust Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK. bp342@cam.ac.uk.

Psychopharmacology
|October 12, 2018
PubMed
Summary

This review examines how animals process non-rewarded responses, crucial for understanding conditions like Parkinson's disease and depression. Findings highlight neurotransmitter roles and new behavioral tests for clinical translation.

Keywords:
DopamineExtinctionLearningOperantSchedules of reinforcementSerotoninTouchscreen

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Behavioral Science
  • Psychiatry

Background:

  • Abnormal processing of non-rewarded responses is observed in clinical populations such as Parkinson's disease, depression, compulsive disorders, and schizophrenia.
  • These deficits are hypothesized to stem from dysregulation in modulatory neurotransmitter systems, particularly dopamine and serotonin.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review methods for assessing the processing of unrewarded responses in experimental animals.
  • To explore the underlying neural and behavioral mechanisms of these tasks.
  • To discuss the clinical relevance and translational potential of these findings.

Main Methods:

  • Review of classical behavioral tasks including appetitive extinction, ratio schedules, reversal learning, and discounting procedures.
  • Description of innovative behavioral tests utilizing probabilistic feedback to assess learning from non-rewarded responses.
  • Discussion of trial-by-trial analysis for enhanced understanding of response dynamics.

Main Results:

  • Experimental animal studies reveal consistent behavioral patterns associated with non-reward.
  • Evidence supports modulatory roles for dopamine and serotonin in processing non-rewarded responses.
  • New behavioral assays offer precise measurement of accommodation and learning from non-reward.

Conclusions:

  • Understanding non-reward processing in animals provides a model for human clinical disorders.
  • Neurotransmitter systems, especially dopamine and serotonin, are critical for adaptive responding.
  • Advanced behavioral analyses and tasks are essential for translating findings to clinical applications.