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What is Natural Selection?01:32

What is Natural Selection?

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Natural selection is an evolutionary process in which individuals with survival-promoting traits reproduce at higher rates. These favorable traits become more common within a population or species. Naturally selected traits initially arise via random genetic mutations. In order for selection to occur, there must be variation within a population, the trait controlling the variation must be heritable, and there must be an evolutionary advantage for variation in the trait.
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When the fitness of a trait is influenced by how common it is (i.e., its frequency) relative to different traits within a population, this is referred to as frequency-dependent selection. Frequency-dependent selection may occur between species or within a single species. This type of selection can either be positive—with more common phenotypes having higher fitness—or negative, with rarer phenotypes conferring increased fitness.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 3, 2026

Synthesis of Core-shell Lanthanide-doped Upconversion Nanocrystals for Cellular Applications
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Selective cellular imaging with lanthanide-based upconversion nanoparticles.

Padmaja P Nampi1, Alexander Vakurov2,3, Lewis E Mackenzie2,4

  • 1School of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.

Journal of Biophotonics
|October 24, 2018
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Polyethyleneimine-coated upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) offer stable, non-toxic red luminescence for cellular imaging. These UCNPs concentrate in the cytoplasm, enabling selective imaging distinct from nucleus-targeting dyes.

Keywords:
cellular imagingluminescence upconversionnanomaterialstoxicityupconversion nanoparticles

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Nanotechnology
  • Biomedical Imaging

Background:

  • Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) are promising for bioimaging due to their unique light-emitting properties.
  • Achieving long-term stability and biocompatibility in aqueous environments is crucial for UCNP applications.
  • Polyethyleneimine (PEI) is explored as a surface modifier for nanoparticles.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To synthesize and characterize stable, non-toxic UCNPs for biological applications.
  • To investigate the cellular uptake and localization of PEI-modified UCNPs.
  • To evaluate the potential of UCNPs for selective cytoplasm imaging.

Main Methods:

  • Hydrothermal synthesis of NaYF4:Yb3+,Er3+ UCNPs incorporating PEI.
  • Characterization of UCNP size, zeta potential, and luminescence properties.
  • In vitro cytotoxicity assessment using MTT assay and multiphoton cellular imaging.

Main Results:

  • PEI-modified UCNPs exhibited enhanced water stability, a positive zeta potential (+36.5 mV), and intense red luminescence.
  • UCNPs demonstrated excellent biocompatibility with endothelial cells (90-100% viability).
  • Multiphoton imaging revealed predominant cytoplasmic localization of UCNPs, sparing the cell nucleus.

Conclusions:

  • PEI-coated UCNPs are stable, non-toxic, and suitable for multiphoton bioimaging.
  • UCNPs enable selective cytoplasm imaging, complementing nucleus-specific fluorescent dyes.
  • This study highlights UCNPs as valuable tools for advanced cellular imaging techniques.