Coping with intrasexual behavioral differences: Capture-recapture abundance estimation of male cheetah

Population estimates are a fundamental requirement of ecology and conservation. While capture-recapture models are an established method for producing such estimates, their assumption of homogeneous capture probabilities is problematic given that heterogeneity in individual capture probability is inherent to most species. Such variation must be accounted for by abundance models; otherwise, biased estimates are risked.Here, we investigate the performance of four types of heterogeneity models for estimating abundance of male cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, a species with two distinct spatial tactics of territorial and nonterritorial (floater) males. The differences in spatial movements of territory holders and floaters are expected to result in intrasexual heterogeneous capture probabilities. Four heterogeneity models were used to model male abundance at five territories in central Namibia; (a) a spatial tactic model, (b) a finite mixture model, both run in program MARK, (c) a floater-only model, and (d) a heterogeneity M_h model, both run in the program CAPTURE. Camera trap data of cheetah, taken at frequently visited marking trees, were used to derive true abundance. Model results were compared to the true abundance to assess the accuracy of estimates.Only models (a), (b), and (c) were able to consistently produce accurate results. Mixture models do not require prior knowledge regarding spatial tactic of males, which might not always be available. Therefore, we recommend such models as the preferred model type for cheetahs.Results highlight the potential for mixture models in overcoming the challenges of capture probability heterogeneity and in particular their use with species where intrasexual behavioral differences exist.