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When a voltage is applied to a conductor, an electrical field is generated, and charges in the conductor feel the force due to the electrical field. The current density that results depends on the electrical field and the properties of the material. In some materials, including metals at a given temperature, the current density is approximately proportional to the electrical field. In these cases, the current density can be modeled as:
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In circuit analysis, situations often arise where resistors are neither in series nor parallel configurations. To tackle such scenarios, three-terminal equivalent networks like the wye (Y) (Figure 1 (a)) or tee (T) and delta (Δ) (Figure 1 (b)) or pi (π) networks come into play. These networks offer versatile solutions and are frequently encountered in various applications, including three-phase electrical systems, electrical filters, and matching networks.
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Resistance and Conductance01:25

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A conductor's DC resistance at a given temperature is influenced by its resistivity, length, and cross-sectional area. Resistivity is an inherent property of the conductor material, with annealed copper serving as the international standard for measurement. For instance, the resistivity of hard-drawn aluminum at 20 degrees Celsius is 61% of the standard conductivity of annealed copper.
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When a solid cylinder rolls steadily on a rigid surface, the normal force applied by the surface on the cylinder is perpendicular to the tangent at the contact point. However, since no materials are entirely rigid, the surface's reaction to the cylinder involves a range of normal pressures.
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Quantitative Measurement of GLUT4 Translocation to the Plasma Membrane by Flow Cytometry
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Cell Membranes Resist Flow.

Zheng Shi1, Zachary T Graber2, Tobias Baumgart2

  • 1Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute.

Cell
|November 6, 2018
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Membrane tension changes do not travel far in intact cells, contrary to the fluid-mosaic model. Local membrane tension, not long-range propagation, influences cellular processes like ion channel activity and vesicle fusion.

Keywords:
cell mechanicsmembrane signalingmembrane tensionporous mediarheology

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Area of Science:

  • Cell Biology
  • Biophysics

Background:

  • The fluid-mosaic model describes the plasma membrane as fluid, allowing flow in response to tension gradients.
  • It is widely assumed that membrane tension propagates rapidly, mediating long-range intracellular signaling.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the propagation dynamics of membrane tension in intact cells versus cell blebs.
  • To determine if membrane tension serves as a long-range signaling mechanism.

Main Methods:

  • Experimental observation of membrane tension propagation in cell-attached blebs and intact cells.
  • Development of a fluid dynamical model incorporating cytoskeleton-bound transmembrane protein resistance.
  • Measurement of tension propagation diffusion coefficient in HeLa cells.
  • Analysis of mechanosensitive ion channel activation and vesicle fusion in primary endothelial cells.

Main Results:

  • Membrane tension propagation is rapid in cell blebs but significantly suppressed in intact cells.
  • A fluid dynamical model explains suppressed propagation due to cytoskeleton-bound transmembrane proteins.
  • Tension propagates diffusively in HeLa cells with a diffusion coefficient of approximately 0.024 µm²/s.
  • Local membrane tension increases in endothelial cells result in localized ion channel activation and vesicle fusion.

Conclusions:

  • Membrane tension does not function as a mediator of long-range intracellular signaling.
  • Local variations in membrane tension are responsible for distinct sub-cellular domain processes.