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Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids02:26

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

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Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no regular arrangement (no fixed shape); in a gas, they are far apart with no regular arrangement (no fixed shape). Particles in a solid vibrate about fixed positions (cannot flow) and do not generally move in relation to one another; in a liquid, they move past each other (can flow) but remain in essentially constant contact; in a gas, they move...
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Most solids and liquids are incompressible—their densities remain constant throughout. In the presence of an external force, the molecules tend to restore to their original positions, which is only possible because the constituents interact. The interactions help the constituents pass on information about external disturbances, like sound waves. Therefore, sound waves travel faster through these media. Compared to solids, the constituents in a liquid are less tightly bound. Thus, sound...
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Isolated atoms have discrete energy levels that are well described by the Bohr model. And, it quantifies the energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom as En. Higher quantum numbers 'n' yield less negative, closer electron energy levels.
 Band Formation:
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Surface Tension and Surface Energy01:16

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When a paint brush is immersed in water, the bristles wave freely inside the water. When it is taken out, the bristles stick together. The reason behind this effect is surface tension.
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Rise of Liquid in a Capillary Tube

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When very thin cylindrical tubes, called capillaries, are dipped in a liquid, the liquid rises or falls in the tube compared to the surrounding liquid. This phenomenon is called capillary action. Capillary action occurs due to the combination of two opposing forces: the cohesive forces of the liquid, which cause it to stick to itself and form a rounded shape, and the adhesive forces between the liquid and the walls of the container, which cause the liquid to be attracted to the container walls.
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As with waves on a string, the speed of sound or a mechanical wave in a fluid depends on the fluid's elastic modulus and inertia. The two relevant physical quantities are the bulk modulus and the density of the material. Indeed, it turns out that the relationship between speed and the bulk modulus and density in fluids is the same as that between the speed and the Young's modulus and density in solids.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 3, 2026

Selective Area Modification of Silicon Surface Wettability by Pulsed UV Laser Irradiation in Liquid Environment
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Selective Area Modification of Silicon Surface Wettability by Pulsed UV Laser Irradiation in Liquid Environment

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Solid-liquid-liquid wettability and its prediction with surface free energy models.

A Stammitti-Scarpone1, E J Acosta1

  • 1Dept. Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada.

Advances in Colloid and Interface Science
|November 7, 2018
PubMed
Summary

Predicting solid-liquid-liquid wettability is crucial for many applications. This study extends surface free energy models, finding the extended Equation-of-State (e-EQS) method effectively predicts wettability across various solid surfaces and conditions.

Keywords:
Immersed solidsSolid-liquid-liquid wettabilitySurface free energyUnderwater contact angle predictionWork of adhesion

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Area of Science:

  • Surface Science
  • Materials Science
  • Physical Chemistry

Background:

  • Wettability in solid-liquid-liquid (SLL) systems is vital for diverse industrial applications.
  • Predicting SLL wetting behavior on smooth surfaces remains a significant challenge.
  • Existing models for solid-liquid-air (SLA) systems require adaptation for SLL scenarios.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore and evaluate methods for predicting SLL wettability.
  • To adapt existing surface free energy models for SLL systems.
  • To determine SLL wettability on various materials and correlate with model predictions.

Main Methods:

  • Reviewed existing solid surface free energy data from SLA contact angle measurements.
  • Determined SLL wettability using the inverted sessile drop method for toluene on glass, mica, stainless steel, and PTFE in Toluene-water-isopropyl alcohol solutions.
  • Extended and evaluated Geometric Mean (GM), Harmonic Mean (HM), and Equation-of-State (EQS) models for SLL systems.

Main Results:

  • Observed a wetting transition from water-wetting to oil-wetting with decreasing interfacial tension for glass and stainless steel.
  • Mica remained water-wetting, while PTFE exhibited oil-wetting behavior.
  • The extended EQS (e-EQS) method provided reasonable predictions for SLL wettability, requiring fitting of specific interfacial energy terms based on material properties.

Conclusions:

  • The e-EQS method is a promising approach for predicting SLL wettability, outperforming extended GM and HM models.
  • Successful application of e-EQS requires fitting the appropriate solid-liquid interfacial energy term (e.g., $\gamma_{S-o}$ for low surface energy materials like PTFE).
  • The study provides valuable insights into SLL wetting phenomena and offers a predictive tool for material selection and process design.