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General Properties of Solutions

General Properties of Solutions

Many common substances around us exist as a solution, such as ocean water, air, and gasoline. All solutions are mixtures of substances that are composed of varying amounts of two or more types of atoms or molecules. A mixture with a non-uniform composition is a heterogeneous mixture, whereas a mixture with a uniform composition is a homogeneous mixture. The components that make the homogeneous mixture are evenly spread out and thoroughly mixed.

Weak Base Solutions

Weak Base Solutions

Some compounds produce hydroxide ions when dissolved by chemically reacting with water molecules. In all cases, these compounds react only partially and so are classified as weak bases. These types of compounds are also abundant in nature and important commodities in various technologies. For example, global production of the weak base ammonia is typically well over 100 metric tons annually, being widely used as an agricultural fertilizer, a raw material for chemical synthesis of other...

Strong Acid and Base Solutions

Strong Acid and Base Solutions

A strong acid is a compound that dissociates completely in an aqueous solution and produces a concentration of hydronium ions equal to the initial concentration of acid. For example, 0.20 M hydrobromic acid will dissociate completely in water and produces 0.20 M of hydronium ions and 0.20 M of bromide ions.

The Phosphorus Cycle

The Phosphorus Cycle

Unlike carbon, water, and nitrogen, phosphorus is not present in the atmosphere as a gas. Instead, most phosphorus in the ecosystem exists as compounds, such as phosphate ions (PO43-), found in soil, water, sediment and rocks. Phosphorus is often a limiting nutrient (i.e., in short supply). Consequently, phosphorus is added to most agricultural fertilizers, which can cause environmental problems related to runoff in aquatic ecosystems.

Leveling Effect and Non-Aqueous Acid-Base Solutions

Leveling Effect and Non-Aqueous Acid-Base Solutions

This lesson defines the leveling effect in acidic and basic solutions and its role in aqueous and non-aqueous solutions. It is essential to understand the competing nature of various species in a chemical system.
The Leveling Effect of a Solvent
A generic acid (HA) reacts with the generic base (B-) to yield the corresponding conjugate base (A-) and conjugate acid (HB):

Solution Composition During Acid/Base Titrations

Solution Composition During Acid/Base Titrations

The titration of a weak acid with a strong base results in the formation of water and the conjugate base of the acid. For instance, titrating acetic acid with sodium hydroxide leads to the formation of water and sodium acetate. A solution of acetic acid and sodium acetate constitutes a buffer whose relative concentration at different stages of the titration is indicated by the α values, which represent percentages of the weak acid and its conjugate base.
The α0 and α1 values...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 3, 2026

Tuning Oxide Properties by Oxygen Vacancy Control During Growth and Annealing

Tuning Oxide Properties by Oxygen Vacancy Control During Growth and Annealing

Published on: June 9, 2023

Solution-Based Property Tuning of Black Phosphorus.

Shuangqing Fan¹, Wanfu Shen¹, Jun Liu¹

¹State Key Laboratory of Precision Measurement Technology and Instruments, School of Precision Instruments and Opto-electronics Engineering , Tianjin University , No. 92 Weijin Road , Tianjin 300072 , China.

ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces

|November 7, 2018

Summary

A new chemical method simultaneously passivates and tunes black phosphorus (BP) properties. Functionalization with TEMPO improves BP field-effect transistor performance and reduces anisotropy, enabling new electronic applications.

Keywords:

anisotropy black phosphorus contact resistance functionalization p-type doping

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Last Updated: Feb 3, 2026

Tuning Oxide Properties by Oxygen Vacancy Control During Growth and Annealing

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Laboratory-determined Phosphorus Flux from Lake Sediments as a Measure of Internal Phosphorus Loading

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Preparation and Use of Carbonyl-decorated Carbenes in the Activation of White Phosphorus

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Area of Science:

Materials Science
Chemistry
Physics

Background:

Black phosphorus (BP) exhibits air instability, limiting its electronic and optoelectronic applications.
Existing passivation methods for BP offer limited control over its properties.
Developing methods for simultaneous passivation and property tuning of BP is crucial.

Purpose of the Study:

To develop a simple, low-cost chemical method for BP passivation and property tailoring.
To investigate the effects of TEMPO functionalization on BP properties and device performance.

Main Methods:

Immersion of BP samples in a solution of TEMPO and triphenylcarbenium tetrafluoroborate in a water-acetone mixture.
Characterization of functionalized BP using field-effect transistor measurements and analysis of electrical and optical properties.

Main Results:

Simultaneous passivation and p-doping of BP to a degenerated density of 10^13 cm^-2.
Significant improvement in field-effect transistor performance with a high I_on/I_off ratio (10^6) and carrier mobility (881.5 cm^2/(V·s)).
Reduced contact resistance to 0.97 kΩ·μm and a decrease in BP electrical and optical anisotropies.

Conclusions:

The developed chemical functionalization method effectively passivates BP against degradation.
TEMPO functionalization enables simultaneous property tuning, including p-doping and anisotropy reduction.
This approach offers a viable route for enhancing BP-based electronic and optoelectronic devices.