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Structures of Solids

Structures of Solids

Solids in which the atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a definite repeating pattern are known as crystalline solids. Metals and ionic compounds typically form ordered, crystalline solids. A crystalline solid has a precise melting temperature because each atom or molecule of the same type is held in place with the same forces or energy. Amorphous solids or non-crystalline solids (or, sometimes, glasses) which lack an ordered internal structure and are randomly arranged. Substances that...

Metallic Solids

Metallic Solids

Metallic solids such as crystals of copper, aluminum, and iron are formed by metal atoms. The structure of metallic crystals is often described as a uniform distribution of atomic nuclei within a “sea” of delocalized electrons. The atoms within such a metallic solid are held together by a unique force known as metallic bonding that gives rise to many useful and varied bulk properties.
All metallic solids exhibit high thermal and electrical conductivity, metallic luster, and malleability....

Molecular and Ionic Solids

Molecular and Ionic Solids

Crystalline solids are divided into four types: molecular, ionic, metallic, and covalent network based on the type of constituent units and their interparticle interactions.
Molecular Solids
Molecular crystalline solids, such as ice, sucrose (table sugar), and iodine, are solids that are composed of neutral molecules as their constituent units. These molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces such as London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, or hydrogen bonds, which...

Network Covalent Solids

Network Covalent Solids

Network covalent solids contain a three-dimensional network of covalently bonded atoms as found in the crystal structures of nonmetals like diamond, graphite, silicon, and some covalent compounds, such as silicon dioxide (sand) and silicon carbide (carborundum, the abrasive on sandpaper). Many minerals have networks of covalent bonds.
To break or to melt a covalent network solid, covalent bonds must be broken. Because covalent bonds are relatively strong, covalent network solids are typically...

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no regular arrangement (no fixed shape); in a gas, they are far apart with no regular arrangement (no fixed shape). Particles in a solid vibrate about fixed positions (cannot flow) and do not generally move in relation to one another; in a liquid, they move past each other (can flow) but remain in essentially constant contact; in a gas, they move...

Subatomic Particles

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. These three particles account for the mass and the charge of an atom.

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Methodology to Evaluate Dripper Sensitivity to Clogging due to Solid Particles: An Assessment.

Rogério Lavanholi¹, Fabricio C Oliveira², Antonio P de Camargo³

¹Biosystems Engineering Department, College of Agriculture "Luiz de Queiroz" (ESALQ), University of São Paulo (USP), Piracicaba, SP, Brazil.

Thescientificworldjournal

|November 15, 2018

Summary

Emitter clogging in microirrigation systems is a significant issue. This study validated a lab test procedure to standardize emitter clogging resistance assessment, highlighting variability in results.

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Area of Science:

Agricultural Engineering
Hydrology
Material Science

Background:

Emitter clogging is a major challenge in microirrigation, primarily caused by suspended solid particles.
Water quality and emitter design are critical factors influencing clogging in irrigation systems.

Purpose of the Study:

To assess the performance and suitability of a laboratory clogging test procedure for microirrigation emitters.
To validate a methodology for standardizing emitter clogging resistance testing.

Main Methods:

Laboratory-based clogging tests were performed on four models of emitting pipes.
The study evaluated the procedure's ability to assess particle concentrations and sizes causing emitter clogging.

Main Results:

The clogging test procedure accurately identified particle combinations causing clogging in different dripper models.
Significant variability was observed in clogging degrees across replications for each dripper model.

Conclusions:

The validated laboratory methodology can assess emitter sensitivity to solid particle clogging.
Further refinements are needed to address variability and support the standardization of a robust clogging test protocol for microirrigation systems.