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The histone proteins in the nucleosomes are post-translationally modified (PTM) to increase or decrease access to DNA. The commonly observed PTMs are methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation, and ubiquitination of lysine amino acids in the histone H3 tail region. These histone modifications have specific meaning for the cell. Hence, they are called "histone code". The protein complex involved in histone modification is termed as "reader-writer" complex.
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Viruses are extraordinarily diverse in shape and size, but they all have several structural features in common. All viruses have a core that contains a DNA- or RNA-based genome. The core is surrounded by a protective coat of proteins called the capsid. The capsid is composed of subunits called capsomeres. The capsid and genome-containing core are together known as the nucleocapsid.
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A mutation is a change in the sequence of bases of DNA or RNA in a genome. Some mutations occur during replication of the genome due to errors made by the polymerase enzymes that replicate DNA or RNA. Unlike DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase is prone to errors because it is not capable of “proofreading” its work. Viruses with RNA-based genomes, like HIV, therefore accrue mutations faster than viruses with DNA-based genomes. Because mutation and recombination provide the raw material...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 2, 2026

Establishment of Viral Infection and Analysis of Host-Virus Interaction in Drosophila Melanogaster
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Causes and Consequences of Spatial Within-Host Viral Spread.

Molly E Gallagher1, Christopher B Brooke2,3, Ruian Ke4

  • 1Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. mgallagher@emory.edu.

Viruses
|November 16, 2018
PubMed
Summary

Understanding viral spread within hosts is crucial. This review highlights localized influenza A virus (IAV) spread and identifies factors like dispersal and immune response that influence viral dynamics, informing disease control.

Keywords:
Influenza virusspatial spreadwithin-host evolutionwithin-host viral dynamics

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Area of Science:

  • Virology
  • Epidemiology
  • Mathematical Biology

Background:

  • Viral spread between and within hosts is a spatial process.
  • Within-host viral spread, particularly for influenza A viruses (IAVs), remains understudied compared to epidemiological spread.
  • Experimental studies show highly localized IAV spread within hosts.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review experimental and computational studies on within-host IAV spread.
  • To identify factors influencing spatial dynamics of within-host viral spread.
  • To bridge theoretical expectations from ecological range expansions to within-host viral dynamics.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of experimental studies on IAV within-host spread.
  • Literature review of computational modeling studies on within-host IAV spread.
  • Application of ecological range expansion theory to within-host viral dynamics.

Main Results:

  • Empirical evidence supports localized within-host IAV spread.
  • Computational models suggest dispersal distance, immune response, and host cell heterogeneity impact spatial dynamics.
  • Ecological theory highlights density dependence, dispersal frequency, life history, and heterogeneity as key factors in spatial spread.

Conclusions:

  • Spatial dynamics significantly impact within-host viral population dynamics.
  • Theoretical frameworks from ecology can inform understanding of within-host viral spread.
  • Addressing knowledge gaps in spatial within-host spread can improve disease control strategies.