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Vision

Vision

Vision is the result of light being detected and transduced into neural signals by the retina of the eye. This information is then further analyzed and interpreted by the brain. First, light enters the front of the eye and is focused by the cornea and lens onto the retina—a thin sheet of neural tissue lining the back of the eye. Because of refraction through the convex lens of the eye, images are projected onto the retina upside-down and reversed.

Color Vision

Color Vision

Color perception begins in the retina, the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye. Two main theories explain how colors are seen: the trichromatic theory and the opponent-process theory. The trichromatic theory, proposed by Thomas Young in 1802 and extended by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1852, suggests that color vision is based on three types of cone receptors in the retina. These cones are sensitive to different but overlapping ranges of wavelengths corresponding to red, blue, and green.

Ideal Solutions

Ideal Solutions

According to Raoult’s law, the partial vapor pressure of a solvent in a solution is equal or identical to the vapor pressure of the pure solvent multiplied by its mole fraction in the solution. However, Raoult's Law is only valid for ideal solutions. For a solution to be ideal, the solvent-solute interaction must be just as strong as a solvent-solvent or solute-solute interaction. This suggests that both the solute and the solvent would use the same amount of energy to escape to the...

Enthalpy of Solution

Enthalpy of Solution

There are two criteria that favor, but do not guarantee, the spontaneous formation of a solution:

Position-effect Variegation

Position-effect Variegation

In 1928, a German botanist Emil Heitz observed the moss nuclei with a DNA binding dye. He observed that while some chromatin regions decondense and spread out in the interphase nucleus, others do not. He termed them euchromatin and heterochromatin, respectively. He proposed that the heterochromatin regions reflect a functionally inactive state of the genome. It was later confirmed that heterochromatin is transcriptionally repressed, and euchromatin is transcriptionally active chromatin.

General Properties of Solutions

General Properties of Solutions

Many common substances around us exist as a solution, such as ocean water, air, and gasoline. All solutions are mixtures of substances that are composed of varying amounts of two or more types of atoms or molecules. A mixture with a non-uniform composition is a heterogeneous mixture, whereas a mixture with a uniform composition is a homogeneous mixture. The components that make the homogeneous mixture are evenly spread out and thoroughly mixed.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 2, 2026

A Spine Robotic-Assisted Navigation System for Pedicle Screw Placement

A Spine Robotic-Assisted Navigation System for Pedicle Screw Placement

Published on: May 11, 2020

Vision solution for an assisted puncture robotics system positioning.

Guanwu Jiang, Minzhou Luo, Lijuan Lu

|November 22, 2018

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

This study introduces a robot-assisted system using binocular vision for precise skin marker localization in minimally invasive surgery. This technology enhances coordinate accuracy for robot-assisted puncture procedures.

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Last Updated: Feb 2, 2026

A Spine Robotic-Assisted Navigation System for Pedicle Screw Placement

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Published on: May 11, 2020

Robot-assisted Partial Splenectomy

Robot-assisted Partial Splenectomy

Published on: January 2, 2026

Robot-Assisted Kidney Transplantation

Robot-Assisted Kidney Transplantation

Published on: July 19, 2021

Area of Science:

Robotics
Computer-Assisted Surgery
Medical Imaging

Background:

Medical robotics and computer-assisted surgery are rapidly advancing fields.
These technologies are transforming traditional surgical methods.
Minimally invasive surgery benefits from enhanced precision and control.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate an auxiliary robotic puncture procedure using binocular vision optical positioning.
To achieve precise coordinate localization of skin markers for minimally invasive surgery.
To establish a foundation for robot-assisted precise positioning in puncture surgery.

Main Methods:

Utilized ZED binocular cameras for image acquisition.
Employed Zhang's calibration method to establish a camera model.
Implemented a Hough circle detection algorithm for feature extraction and 3D coordinate determination of marker points.

Main Results:

Successfully extracted 3D spatial coordinates of marker points.
Obtained accurate marker coordinate information for a human 3D bone model.
Demonstrated the feasibility of binocular vision for precise marker localization.

Conclusions:

The developed robotic system with binocular vision provides accurate skin marker localization.
This technology is foundational for advancing robot-assisted precise positioning in puncture surgery.
The study highlights the potential of integrated robotics and computer vision in surgical applications.